比特派钱包安全下载|geography

作者：比特派钱包安全下载

2024-03-08 22:38:39

GEOGRAPHY中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典

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geography 在英语-中文（简体）词典中的翻译

geographynoun [ U ] uk

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/dʒiˈɒɡ.rə.fi/ us

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/dʒiˈɑː.ɡrə.fi/

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A2 the study of the systems and processes involved in the world's weather, mountains, seas, lakes, etc. and of the ways in which countries and people organize life within an area

地理；地理学

也请参见

physical geography

the geography of somewhere

the way all the parts of an area are arranged within it: the geography of Australia

澳大利亚地形

更多范例减少例句a geography field tripMy favourite subjects at school were history and geography.

(geography在剑桥英语-中文（简体）词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)

geography的例句

geography

Identity, difference, feminist geometries and geographies.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Many of the master's students, particularly in their dissertations, produced regional geographies that were both physical and human (even economic).

来自 Wikipedia

该例句来自维基百科，在CC BY-SA许可下可重复使用。

Important differences in the geography of the two regions are also outlined.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Living well in old age may literally depend upon geography or chance, and more certainly on available wealth.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Getting there : mapping the gendered geography of caregiving to elderly relatives.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Rett syndrome occurs in approximately 1:10,000 live female births in all geographies, and across all races and ethnicities.

来自 Wikipedia

该例句来自维基百科，在CC BY-SA许可下可重复使用。

Because these modes of thought have their own coherence and create their own traditions, they give rise to a characteristic intellectual geography.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

Differences in geography, cultivars, rootstocks, soils, microclimate and growers' personal preferences determine the production practices and materials used in organic apple orchard management.

来自 Cambridge English Corpus

示例中的观点不代表剑桥词典编辑、剑桥大学出版社和其许可证颁发者的观点。

geography的翻译

中文（繁体）

地理, 地理學…

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西班牙语

geografía, geografía [feminine]…

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葡萄牙语

geografia, geografia [feminine]…

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भूगोलशास्त्र…

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地理学, 地理学（ちりがく）, 地形（ちけい）…

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coğrafya, coğrafya bilimi…

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géographie [feminine], géographie…

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geografia…

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geografie…

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உலகின் வானிலை, மலைகள், கடல்கள்…

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भूगोल…

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ભૂગોળ, ભૂવિજ્ઞાન, ભૂગોળશાસ્ત્ર…

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geografi…

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geografi…

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geografi…

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die Geografie…

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geografi [masculine], terreng [neuter], geografi…

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جغرافیہ, علم الارض…

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географія…

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география…

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భౌగోళిక శాస్త్రం…

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عِلْم الجُغْرافيا…

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ভূগোল, বিশ্বের আবহাওয়া, পর্বত…

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zeměpis…

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geografi…

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ภูมิศาสตร์…

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địa lý học…

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geografia…

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지리학…

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geografia…

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geography的发音是什么？

在英语词典中查看 geography 的释义

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geofencing

geographer

geographical

geographically

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geolocation

geological

geologically

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geography更多的中文(简体)翻译

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human geography

physical geography

political geography

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“每日一词”

healthspan

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/ˈhelθ.spæn/

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/ˈhelθ.spæn/

the number of years that someone lives or can expect to live in reasonably good health

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geography是什么意思_geography的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典

raphy是什么意思_geography的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典首页翻译背单词写作校对词霸下载用户反馈专栏平台登录geography是什么意思_geography用英语怎么说_geography的翻译_geography翻译成_geography的中文意思_geography怎么读,geography的读音,geography的用法,geography的例句翻译人工翻译试试人工翻译翻译全文简明柯林斯牛津geography高中/CET4/CET6英 [dʒiˈɒɡrəfi]美 [dʒiˈɑːɡrəfi]释义n.地理（学）; 地形，地势; 布局点击人工翻译，了解更多人工释义词态变化复数: geographies;副词: geographically;形容词: geographical;实用场景例句全部地理地形地势布局human/physical/economic/social geography人文 / 自然 / 经济 / 社会地理学牛津词典a geography lesson/department/teacher/textbook地理课 / 系 / 教师 / 课本牛津词典a degree in geography地理学学位牛津词典the geography of New York City纽约市的地势牛津词典Kim knew the geography of the building and strode along the corridor.金熟悉这栋建筑物的布局，大步流星地走在走廊上。牛津词典The geography of poverty and the geography of voting are connected.贫穷的地理环境与选票的地理分布是相联系的。牛津词典The survey covers a wide geographical area .此项调查覆盖的地理区域非常广阔。牛津词典The importance of the town is due to its geographical location .这座城镇的重要性在于它的地理位置。牛津词典geographically remote areas地理上的边远地区牛津词典...policemen who knew the local geography.熟悉当地地形的警察柯林斯高阶英语词典...a pictorial journey through the history, geography and culture of the Caribbean.领略加勒比地区历史、地理及文化的图片之旅柯林斯高阶英语词典Rural geography appears to be as strong as ever.乡村地理学呈现出从未有过的强劲发展.期刊摘选It is outside the cities that nature, geography, climate, have their maximum impact.只有在城市以外,自然、地理、气候才达到它们最大的效应.期刊摘选Environment of my province geography is superior, suit to foster race most.我省地理环境优越, 最适合培养赛马.期刊摘选Finally, the paper discusses the study meaning of urban social geography for China.最后就城市社会地理学在中国的研究意义进行了探讨.期刊摘选Her major at college is linguistic geography.她在大学所学的专业是方言地理学.期刊摘选The bad region of geography term can adopt the to build up of many layers.地理条件恶劣地区可采用多层增强.期刊摘选We study politics, Chinese, English, maths, geography and other lessons.我们学习政治、语文、英语、数学、地理和其他课程.辞典例句Forestry appertains to geography.森林学和地理学有关.《现代英汉综合大词典》In their geography class, the children are doing a special project on North American Indians.在地理课上, 孩子们正在做一个有关北美印第安人的特别作业.《简明英汉词典》Abuts Soviet, the tin , Shanghai , the traffic convenience, the geography economical condition is often advantageous.紧靠苏、、、 ,交通便利、理经济条件得天独厚.期刊摘选I shall confine myself to the subject of geography.我将专攻地理学.《现代英汉综合大词典》You can branch into the field of history and geography.你还可以旁及历史,地理等学科.期刊摘选This paper discusses Marco Polo S contributions to physical geography and mineralogy.马可.波罗对自然地理学和矿物学也做出了较大的贡献.期刊摘选Of course, like the traditional mode of production, subject to the limitations of time and geography.当然, 也不会像传统生产方式那样, 受到时间和地域的限制.期刊摘选Try to correlate your knowledge of history with your knowledge of geography.试着把你的历史知识和地理知识联系起来.《简明英汉词典》We're unfamiliar to the geography of New England.我们不熟悉新英格兰的地形.《简明英汉词典》The geography paper was difficult.地理试题很难.《简明英汉词典》Concentrators in geological sciences elect either geology or geography.主修地质学的学生要选修地质学或地理课程.《简明英汉词典》收起实用场景例句英英释义Noun1. study of the earth's surface; includes people's responses to topography and climate and soil and vegetation收起英英释义同义词science行业词典地理学地理学释义词态变化实用场景例句英英释义同义词行

地理学（学科）_百度百科

学科）_百度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心地理学是一个多义词，请在下列义项上选择浏览（共5个义项）展开添加义项地理学[dì lǐ xué]播报讨论上传视频学科收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10地理学（geography），是研究地球表层空间地理要素或者地理综合体空间分布规律、时间演变过程和区域特征的一门学科，是自然科学与社会科学的交叉，具有综合性、交叉性和区域性的特点。随着地理信息技术发展与研究方法变革，新时期的地理学正在向地理科学进行转身，研究主题更加强调陆地表层系统的综合研究，研究范式经历着从地理学知识描述、格局与过程耦合，向复杂人地系统的模拟和预测转变。 [1]中文名地理学外文名geography研究对象地球表层学科定位自然科学与社会科学交叉学科分支学科自然地理学、人文地理学等学科代码17045 [2-3]目录1学科历史▪古代发展▪近代发展▪现代发展▪发展趋势2学科内涵3研究对象4学科特点5学科体系▪自然地理学▪人文地理学▪其他信息▪分支学科▪相关学科6学科研究▪研究特点▪研究方法7学科应用8学科评估9地理学家▪中国▪全球学科历史播报编辑古代发展自远古至18世纪末。这一时期的地理学是工业革命之前的农牧业社会的产物，特点如下：①以描述性记载地理知识为主。早期的记载多是片断性的，中晚期出现不少地理著作，但多缺乏理论体系。地理学②地理学内部尚未出现学科分化。早期的学者是百科式的，地理学同其他学科掺和在一起。到了晚期，文艺复兴之后，主要在欧洲出现了自然科学和人文科学的分化，但地理学内部的分化仍不明显。直到19世纪，地理学才发生明显的分化，那是近代地理学时期的事了。③各国的地理学基本上是在该国封闭的条件下发展起来的，其内容呈现多元化。世界几个文明古国各自积累了有价值的地理知识，分别形成古埃及地理学、古希腊罗马地理学、古代印度地理学、古代阿拉伯地理学和古代中国地理学。在早期，古代中国和古希腊罗马的成果显著。中国有《尚书·禹贡》、《管子·地员》、《山海经》等著作，古希腊罗马有埃拉托色尼、斯特拉波和托勒密等人的著作。在中期，欧洲进入中世纪时代，地理学一度衰落了；中国的地理学则取得了可喜的进展和成果，有裴秀《禹贡地域图》和“制图六体”的绘图原则、郦道元《水经注》、玄奘《大唐西域记》、李吉甫《元和郡县图志》等；阿拉伯地理学在这个时期崛起，如马苏第、伊德里西等人的重要贡献。在晚期，则以中国和欧洲的地理学最有成就。在中国，有郑和“七下西洋”、罗洪先《广舆图》、徐霞客的游记、顾炎武《天下郡国利病书》和《肇域志》、顾祖禹《读史方舆纪要》等；在欧洲，地理大发现涌现出了C.哥伦布、V.da伽麦哲伦等地理探险家，极大地推动了地理学的发展，出现了G.墨卡托的地图集、B.瓦伦纽斯《普通地理学》等著作和地图。（见中国地理学史）中世纪的欧洲是经济、文化衰落的黑暗时代，政教合一、闭关自守的小君主国使人们的地理眼界大为缩小，统治者力图使地理学成为基督教的奴仆，出现了地理学思想的反动。不仅古希腊、罗马在地理方面的优秀传统未得到继承，而且用宗教迷信和占星术来解释一切地理现象。如六世纪商人科斯马斯著《基督世界地形》，以地平说代替球形说。书中以摩西的圣柜作为地球的形状把大地看成为扁平长方形，东西长度为南北之两倍，四周为海洋环绕，其外又有陆地，即天堂所在。十二世纪以后，由于十字军东征，使欧洲人地理眼界扩宽了；封建中央集权国家的成立和教会建立大学，将古希腊、罗马的经典著作由阿拉伯文转译过来；加上指南针从中国传入，使商业航海发达起来，才使欧洲的地理作品和地图绘制开始出现某些转机。从公元七世纪开始，伊斯兰教团结了分散的阿拉伯部族，统治了中亚、西亚、北非和伊比利亚半岛，巴格达成为伊斯兰世界的学术中心。连年征战、麦加朝觐和商业航海活动，又使伊斯兰世界成为东西方交流的枢纽，涌现了许多伟大的穆斯林旅行家，如马苏第等。十进位制和罗盘就是此期由中国经印度和阿拉伯世界传入欧洲的。古代阿拉伯地理学的成就是不能忽视的。如921年，巴尔基搜集了阿拉伯旅行者的气候观察，编成了第一本《世界气候图集》；稍后，马克迪西提出将世界分成14个气候区的方案；十一世纪早期，阿维森纳观察中亚山区，提出褶曲抬升山岳的运动和侵蚀切割地形的均变过程。这个时期的中国在方志、沿革地理、域外地理、自然地理和地图等方面都有很大的成就。如法显的《法显传》、玄奘的《大唐西域记》，仍是研究中亚、印度历史地理的重要文献；郦道元的《水经注》仍为考证中国水资源和水环境演变的要著；沈括的《梦溪笔谈》一书提出了河流的侵蚀、搬运和堆积作用，并用以解释华北平原形成的原因，较西方类似的见地早四个世纪。公元十五世纪到公元十八世纪的近古时期有两件重大的地理事件，就是中国的郑和“七下西洋”和西方的地理大发现。虽然，郑和下西洋的时间比哥伦布开始的地理大发现早半个多世纪，船队的规模、航海的技术也远胜于哥伦布，然而其社会意义和对地理学的影响则远不及地理大发现。各民族之间的相互旅行探险，古已有之。但是，旅行探险同地理大发现不是一回事，说哥伦布是新大陆的发现者，正是从地理大发现这一重大社会事件出发的。地理大发现给地理学带来的影响是巨大的。地理大发现期间，成功地在远程航行中运用了罗盘，并精密地测定了经度，这种技术的改进和数据的积累导致了地图学的革新。16世纪初，亚皮安绘制了一个地球的心状图，其弟子墨卡托于1569年绘成了一幅适用于航海的等距圆柱投影世界全图，成为第一个将整个地球表面描绘在平面上的人。在中国，意大利传教士利玛窦编绘的世界地图，改变了中国学者沿用的“天圆地方”、“华夏居于寰宇之中”的旧观念。另外，通过15世纪末到18世纪的地理探险和发现，出现了一些学术价值较高的地理著作。德国明斯特尔的《宇宙志》于1544年出版，被认为是地理大发现的早期代表作；德国瓦伦纽斯的《普通地理学》首次将地理学领域区分为专论和通论两大部分，前者描述地区特征，后者揭示全球性法则。中国明末出现资本主义萌芽后，也在同期进行了实地考察和理论探索工作，如徐霞客的《徐霞客游记》中已有不少成因方面的论述。但中国古代地理著述多描述性记载，缺少对地球表面整体规律的研究，这也是近代中国地理学落后的原因之一。十五世纪20年代到十七世纪20年代，西欧出现了“文艺复兴”，艺术和科学得到蓬勃发展，从而使学者能对自然界和人类活动的某些法则进行概括。当时的地理考察和发现，为哲学家和科学家提供了丰富的自然、人文及二者关系的具体素材；同时，新生的地理唯物论又给予地理学发展以难以估量的影响。17世纪法国哲学家孟德斯鸠提出的气候决定论，18世纪德国哲学家I．康德的二元论，均成为近代地理学的方法论基础。总之，从15～18世纪，地理学处于由古代向近代转变的时期。西方地理学用了三个多世纪，完成了技术革新、资料积累和建立地理唯物论的哲学基础三方面的准备，为欧美近代地理学的建立创造了前提。中国在明末清初，亦开始了整体地表规律的探索，但由于技术手段缺乏创新、科学资料积累不够，特别是统治者仍鼓吹天命论等，新的地理学无法兴起。近代发展从19世纪初至20世纪50年代。近代地理学形成的标志是德国 A.von洪堡的《宇宙》和C.李特尔的《地学通论》两书的问世。近代地理学是产业革命的产物，并随着工业社会的发展而成熟，其特点如下：①它起源于德国，继而从欧洲向全世界传布，形成具有各国特色的近代地理学。其中成果显著的除德国外，还有法国、英国、美国、苏联等（见德国地理学史、法国地理学史、英国地理学史、美国地理学史、苏联地理学史）。②这是学说纷起、学派林立的时期，有一定影响的学说是：以美国E.C.森普尔、E.亨廷顿为代表的“环境决定论”，以法国P.维达尔－白兰士和J.白吕纳为代表的“可能论”，美国H.H.巴罗斯主张的“生态调节论”，英国P.M.罗士培提出的“适应论”，美国C.O.索尔主张的“文化景观论”，以及德国A.赫特纳和美国R.哈特向为代表的“区域论”等。③这是地理学内部大分化时期。洪堡为自然地理学、植物地理学奠定了基础，以后德国F.von李希霍芬、法国马东为自然地理学发展作出了重要贡献；美国W.M.戴维斯和德国W.彭克分别创立侵蚀轮回学说和山坡平行后退理论，标志着地貌学的建立；奥地利J.F.von汉恩的《气候学手册》、俄国А.И.沃耶伊科夫的《全球气候及俄国气候》和德国W.P.柯本的世界气候分类，为气候学奠定了基础；英国A.R.华莱士对世界动物区划的划分为动物地理学奠定了基础；俄国В.В.道库恰耶夫的土壤地带性学说等为土壤地理学奠定了基础；李特尔和德国F.拉采尔建立了人文地理学；拉采尔的国家有机体说、英国H.J.麦金德的陆心说和美国I.鲍曼的民族自决论，为政治地理学奠定了基础，等等。十九世纪末到二十世纪初，西方发达国家的大学大量设立地理系，使地理学开始成为一个职业领域。随着地理学的进一步发展，出现了各分支的分化，在气象学、海洋学、土壤学等独立发展后，一些地理学家强调区域或景观的方向，另一些学者则推行了人文化运动，使地理学的人文分支蓬勃发展起来。20世纪30年代以后，地理学逐渐向参与经济工作过渡，西方的应用地理学和苏联的建设地理学应运而生。近代地理学在其发展过程中取得了许多成果，并形成了三种传统和三个学派：生态传统与环境学派、描述传统与区域学派、综合传统与景观学派。近代地理学在发展中还取得许多重大成果。如美国莫里于19世纪中期提出第一个大气环流模式，发表了近代海洋学的第一部著作《海洋自然地理学》；俄国道库恰耶夫于19世纪后期提出土壤地带性学说和自然地带学说；美国戴维斯于19世纪末提出侵蚀轮回学说；德国柯本从20世纪初起到30年代，提出气候分类法和大陆气候模式：英国麦金德先后于1904和1919年推出“陆心说”的地缘政治理论；英国赫伯森完成世界自然区划；德国克里斯塔勒于30年代提出中心地学说；苏联布德科于1956年发表《地表面热量平衡》等。现代发展从20世纪60年代以后。现代地理学是现代科学技术革命的产物，并随科学技术的进步而发展，其标志是地理数量方法、理论地理学的诞生和计算机地图制图、地理信息系统的出现。现代地理学的特点是：①它发端于现今经济和科学最为发达的美国，首先影响英国和北欧，继而波及西欧、苏联、东欧、日本、中国以至全世界。代表性人物和流派为：美国W.L.加里森和E.L.厄尔曼为首的华盛顿大学派，英国R.J.乔利和P.哈格特为首的剑桥大学派，瑞典T.哈格斯特朗为首的隆德大学派。②强调地理学的统一性。近代地理学时期部门地理学的蓬勃发展，一方面促进了地理学各分支学科研究的深入，另一方面又忽视了地理学的统一性，削弱了地理学综合性的特点，使部门地理学的再深入研究遇到了很大困难。60年代以来，面对全球性的人口剧增、资源危机、环境污染、城市化，以及区域开发等一系列问题，都不是任何部门地理学能单独承担的课题。地理学自身的发展和实践的需要，都要求它加强一体化，充分发挥地理学固有的综合性特点。③理论化和数量化。为加强地理学研究的综合性特点，建设统一地理学，需要探讨各种自然地理现象和人文地理现象之间的联系与规律，以及它们所遵循的总规律，于是理论地理学应运而生。从50年代起，系统论、控制论和信息论等综合性科学方法论的兴起，电子计算机和遥感技术的应用，导致地理学研究方法的革新，使野外考察与航空照片、卫星照片的调查和解译结合起来，从单纯的类型归纳向理论演绎过渡，从一般的实验和分析向模拟实验、分析模式化过渡，从人工制图向自动化制图过渡，于是地理学由定性向定量发展，出现了地理数量方法、地理信息系统等研究和应用领域。④行为化和生态化。20世纪60年代行为科学的出现及其随后的大发展，波及到社会、经济、科学、文化各个方面，也波及到地理学。各种不同人群（如决策人、劳动者、消费者等）对地球表面现象的感应以及采取的相应行为是不同的，研究这些感应、行为的规律，让地理决策和预测更符合实际情况，成为地理学的一项重要任务，从而使地理学研究行为化，并萌发出感应地理和行为地理研究。20世纪20年代在美国出现生态派地理学。30年代中期英国学者提出生态系统概念并进行研究以后，自然地理学研究逐步形成生态化的趋势。60年代系统论等方法论引入地理学以后，自然生态系统研究成了自然地理学研究的热点，从而形成为新自然地理学，以及景观生态学、疾病生态等研究领域。以后，生态化研究进入人文地理领域，城市生态系统、地域经济系统、农业地域结构、文化生态等研究领域陆续出现。统一地理学还深入研究自然生态系统与社会生态系统之间的联系和转化。20世纪80年代，由于世界范围内人口、资源、环境和开发等问题日趋严重。各国地理学者广泛地参与了三大规划(城市规划、区域规划和环境规划)的工作，并在有些方面起了主导作用。这样，就从实践中产生了对城市、区域和环境的综合研究，在理论、模式和决策方面大有进展，发挥了地理学固有的综合特点，萌发出了一系列的新分支。它们均受理论地理学和科学方法论制约，并为应用地理学提供方法和技术。发展趋势第一，地理学研究方法的变革。传统的地理学方法主要有勘查、观测、记录、制图、区划与规划等。早期划定的分区对于决策支持而言,在宏观方面有引导性,但在微观方面需要进一步具体和翔实的信息。现代地理学在发展过程中继承了原有优势,在加强野外考察、观测的同时,更注重应用空间统计、对地观测、地理信息系统、遥感等多种技术手段,建立模型和决策支持系统,为决策和管理服务。 [1]第二，地理学的研究技术已经从概念模型走向定量表达。从早期的地理地带性概念、柯本气候分带到气候系统模式,从早期的地理信息空间叠加到地球系统多圈层要素耦合模式,地理学相关模型的模拟精度正在不断提升。从计算机制图到空间分析,地理信息系统向着具有不同分辨率、海量数据、多维显示的数字地球系统发展。从早期航空遥感走向多卫星组网的多分辨率、全天候、全波段、多要素地球立体观测,遥感观测的时空分辨率大幅提升。从早期的指南针、罗盘,到组网卫星,再到移动终端,全球定位系统实现了从定位走向基于移动网络的位置服务。随着对地球表层的监测体系逐步建立,从天上的航空航天遥感到地下探测,再到地表土壤、植被、水等多要素的观测,实现了精细化、多尺度的野外观测,为研究地理过程提供了丰富数据,深化了对地理现象过程和机制的认识。地理学研究已经从统计模型走向模式模拟,从原来的线性分析发展为非线性数理统计,从模型建立走向模型系统,面向预测的多圈层、多要素耦合的地球系统模式已成为可能。 [1]第三，大数据、可视化和虚拟现实为研究复杂的地理学问题提供了重要工具。大数据可以比较精细刻画社会经济现象的时空变化。例如在人文现象分析中,通过人口在空间上的流动识别热点地区,进而为公共设施布局、交通网络构筑等提供科学依据;通过室内模拟和室外观测相结合,将室外观测的地理过程数据与数字化的降雨量、植被覆盖、城市交通网络布局等要素相结合,进而在计算机上进行智能化、可视化的模拟,为决策提供服务。早期进行土地覆盖、土地利用、土壤等制图研究往往通过野外调查人工绘制,建立调查样地代表不同图斑特征。通过遥感图像解译地物类型,依托地理信息系统对其它空间数据进行整合管理,可以实现地理学核心的人地关系研究,如土地覆盖空间格局变化、城市化过程及其驱动机制等,并为生物多样性保护、城乡规划、应对全球变化等可持续发展相关问题服务。随着地理学圈层相互作用模式越来越注重多要素耦合,综合性和整体性已经成为地理学理念的“数值化表达”,3S技术贯穿于解决地理学问题的各个环节。例如,在气候模式演变研究中,20世纪70年代的气候模式,主要是考虑大气和地球表层;一直到90年代末期,IPCC第二次评估报告时才考虑了气溶胶的影响。后来逐步考虑植被的动态变化、大气化学特征、冰冻圈的变化等,未来也必将增加城市化、社会经济的变化、产业变化对气候系统的影响等。总之,地理学圈层相互作用模式越来越综合,整合了越来越多的自然环境和社会经济特征。 [1]学科内涵播报编辑地理学是一门古老而现代的科学，汉语中的“地理”一词最早见于《周易·系辞》：仰以观于天文，俯以察于地理，是故知幽明之故。英文中的geography一词源自希腊文geo（大地）和graphein（描述），描述地球表面的科学。最早使用"geography"的人为埃拉托色尼，他用此词来表示研究地球的学问。在现代地理学中，“地”是指地球或者是地球表面,或者是地球表层,或者是指一个区域。“理”是指事理、规律,或者是事物规律性的内在联系。地理是指地球表层的地理现象或事物的空间分布、时间演变和相互作用规律。地理学是研究地理要素或者地理综合体的空间分布规律、时间演变过程和区域特征的一门学科。 [1]地理要素通常包括水、土壤、大气、生物和人类活动，简称水土气生人五大要素。地理综合体由地理要素组成。在自然界中，一个生态系统、一个自然地带都可以看作地理综合体。在人类社会中，地理综合体可以是一个城市、或者是城市的一个街区。在空间分布规律研究中，从西双版纳到黑龙江漠河,是一个热带到寒带的跨越;这样的自然地带分布，就是地理综合体的空间分异。时间演变过程主要是对历史时期的研究，并包括一部分地质历史时期。例如第四纪研究需要分析从不同时间尺度的地理过程，进而预测未来发展变化，这就是时间演变过程。地理要素、地理综合体的区域特征也是地理学的研究范畴。例如,在京津冀协同发展研究中分析其区域特征,考虑城市产业的互补性、功能定位、交通网络构成等,辨析城市之间的相互作用,进而为区域协调与可持续发展服务。 [1]地理学是一门研究人地关系的科学，具有综合性、交叉性和区域性的特点。地理学从建立之初就强调自然科学和人文科学的交叉。地理学初期的综合性来源于学科的多样化，但随着分支学科的深入发展，地理学越来越呈现出一种空心化的现象。要防止地理学空心化现象，最主要的是加强地理学的基础理论和方法研究，需要强调人地相互关系的耦合机制，充分体现地理学综合性的特点。 [1]作为一门经世致用的学科，地理学的综合性体现为地理学研究具有多维、动态的视角。以人地关系作为主线来开展地理学综合研究，其综合性和动态性主要包括三个方面：一是以地表环境、地球环境动态变化为主的动态研究,即环境动态研究；二是以人类社会发展为主体的人类社会动态研究，聚焦环境和社会动态之间的关系；三是对区域、流域等研究区域的综合分析。例如在城市化研究中,需要明晰中心城市和其他卫星城市之间在产业布局、交通网络布局、人口分布中的相互作用和相互依赖。同时,地理学综合研究不仅需要发展综合地理学的研究理论和方法,还要关注尺度间的相互依赖。地理学研究对象有尺度大小之分,小尺度可以到生态系统的尺度,大尺度可以到全球尺度。研究区域特征和区际间的依赖是地理学综合研究的重要主题。地理学的空间表达也是多元、多样的。除语言、数字等基本表达方式外,图形往往是地理学表达的主要形式,如通过研究地图可以分析地理要素的空间分布,对比不同时期的地图可以为地理空间演变研究提供直观支持。 [1]研究对象播报编辑地理学(2张)地理学的主要研究对象是地球表层。它是由岩石圈、水圈、大气圈、生物圈和人类智慧圈等相互作用、相互渗透形成的自然—社会综合体。 [1]地理学研究空间的上界面是大气圈对流层顶部，下界面是岩石圈的上部。 [1]地球表层是地球上最复杂的一个界面，是物质三态相互作用、有机与无机相互转化的场所，又是地球内外营力相互作用的场所。地球内营力、地球内部活动构造作用对地球表层有显著影响,地球的外营力对地球表层的改变作用也非常明显。火山爆发、地震、板块运动等内营力造成了高原隆升，是地球的内部动力。流水侵蚀、风力剥蚀等外营力塑造了地表千姿万态的自然界形态。 [1]尤为重要的是，地球表层系统是人类社会赖以生存的环境，维持人类的可持续发展必须要保护地球表层系统,尤其是受人类活动影响最为深刻的陆地表层系统。因此，地理学的研究不仅是涉及物质和能量在垂直方向上的延伸，还涉及到物质和能量在水平方向上的延伸；既包括对自然过程的刻画，还涵盖对人文和社会经济过程的辨析，更包括人地系统的耦合。面对资源、生态、环境等众多复杂的综合性问题，地理学需要找到一条综合性的途径和方法，来应对众多挑战，为人类可持续发展奠定学科基础。 [1]学科特点播报编辑地理学是在研究地球表面的过程中逐渐形成的，并不断完善理论、方法和手段。作为研究对象的地球表面是一个多种要素相互作用的综合体，这决定了地理学研究的综合性特点。它着重于研究各要素之间的相互作用、相互关系以及地表综合体的特征和时、空变化规律。地理学的综合性研究分为不同的层次，层次不同，综合的复杂程度也不同。高层次的综合研究，即人地相关性的研究，是地理学所特有的。综合性的特点决定了地理学是一个横断学科，它与研究地球表面某一个层圈或某一个层圈中部分要素的学科都有密切的关系，如研究大气的大气物理、研究岩石圈的地质学、研究人类圈的经济学、政治学、心理学等等。地理学从这些学科中吸取有关各种要素的专门知识，反过来又为这些学科提供关于各种要素及与其它现象间联系的知识。地球表面自然现象和人文现象空间分布不均匀的特点，决定了地理学研究又有区域性的特点。由于不同的地区存在不同的自然现象和人文现象，一种要素在一个地区呈现出的变化规律在另一个地区可能完全不同，因此研究地理区域就要剖析不同区域内部的结构，包括不同要素之间的关系及其在区域整体中的作用，区域之间的联系，以及它们之间发展变化的制约关系。地理区域性研究的内容包括区域内部结构和区际关系两个方面。地理学的区域研究根据研究对象的范围分为三个尺度：大尺度区域着重探讨全球或全大陆范围内的分异规律和内部结构特征，从而揭示全球或全大陆的总体特征；中尺度区域研究是分析国家或大地区范围内区域总体特征和地域分异规律，以及该地区对大尺度区域分异的作用；小尺度区域是揭示局部地区区域特征和分异规律，以及该地区对中尺度区域分异的作用。地球表面不断变化的特点，决定了地理学必须用动态的观点进行研究的特点。地理学研究及注重空间的变化，也注意时间的变化。这种变化既有周期性的又有随意性的；有长周期的，也又短周期的。用动态的观点研究地理学，就要求把现代地理现象作为历史发展的结果和未来发展的起点，研究不同发展时期和不同历史阶段地理现象的规律。现代地理学已经有可能对于某些区域的未来发展提出预测，并根据预测结果进行控制和管理，以满足人们对区域发展的要求。因此。时间和空间统一的概念，在地理学研究中越来越受到重视。地球表面的复杂性决定了地理研究方法的多样性。现代地理研究主要采用野外考察与室内实验、模拟相结合的研究方法。地理学的研究对象是地球表面，关于地球表面的属性和特征的资料主要来自于野外考察，随着航空遥感、气象卫星、地球资源卫星、航天技术的成果广泛应用于地理学研究，提高了野外考察的速度和精度。地理数据的处理、各种地理现象的实验室模拟等也迅速的发展起来，这不仅仅大大提高了工作效率，还促进了地理学的快速发展。学科体系播报编辑自然地理学自然地理学是研究地理环境的特征、结构及其地域分异规律的形成和演化规律的学科，是地理学两个基本学科中的一个。其研究对象是地球表面的自然地理环境，包括大气对流层、水圈、生物圈和岩石圈上部。所属的分支按研究特点分为两组：一组是综合性的，包括综合自然地理学、古地理学等。一组是部门性的，包括地貌学、气候学、水文地理学、土壤地理学、生物地理学，还包括新近发展起来的，同其他自然学科结合而成的一些边缘学科，如化学地理学、医药地理学，以及异特殊自然要素为研究对象的学科，如冰川学、冻土学等。人文地理学人文地理学是研究地球表面人类各种社会经济活动的空间结构和变化，以及与地理环境的关系的学科，是地理学两个基本学科中的另一个。按研究对象可分为社会地理学、经济地理学、政治地理学、城市地理学等分支。社会地理学即狭义的人文地理学，包括人种地理学、人口地理学、聚落地理学、社会地理学、文化地理学等。经济地理学包括农业地理学、工业地理学、商业地理学、交通地理学，以及新近形成的旅游地理学等。政治地理学包括狭义的政治地理学和军事地理学。城市地理学是城市聚落地理学的一部分，隶属于社会地理学，经过近20年的发展，它的研究对象和内容已经超出了聚落和社会的范围，成为人文地理学的一个独立分支。其他信息历史地理学是研究人类历史时期的自然地理和人文地理环境及其变化规律的学科，这是地理学的一个年轻的分支学科。区域地理学是研究地球表面某一区域地理环境的形成、结构、特征和演化过程，以及区域分异规律的学科，是地理学的重要组成部分。现代区域地理学强调自然地理和人文地理的统一，注重研究区域自然地理要素和人文地理要素的区域综合和空间联系。地图学是研究编制和应用地图的理论、方法和技术的学科，是一门以地图的形式来综合表达某一地区的自然地理和人文地理知识的学科。它是地理学中的技术性学科，同地理学各分支学科都有密切的联系，在促进地理学的发展和实际应用中历来起着重要的作用。理论地理学是研究各类地理现象在统一性的基础上所遵循的总体规律的学科。其研究内容主要包括空间结构论、人地关系论和区位论等。应用地理学是运用地理学的理论、原则和方法解决实际的社会、经济和环境问题的学科。实际上，地理学的不少分支学科就是为了应用而发展起来的，如医药地理学、军事地理学等。由于许多重大问题，比如荒漠化、环境保护、土地利用等问题的解决与研究不是一门学科所能单独胜任的，而地理学由于是综合性的横断学科，特别适于这种应用性研究。还有数量地理学、地名学、方志学等等。总之，21世纪的地理学将是一门在理论化和数量化基础上，进一步综合化、生态化、社会化的理论与应用并举的两栖科学。分支学科地理学概述、自然地理学、地貌学、动力地貌学、构造地貌学、气候地貌学、应用地貌学、植物地理学、动物地理学、冰川学、冻土学、古地理学、水文地理学、土壤地理学、化学地理学、综合自然地理学、人文地理学、经济地理学、农业地理学、工业地理学、商业地理学、交通运输地理学、旅游地理学、人口地理学、人种地理学、聚落地理学、乡村地理学、城市地理学、社会地理学、文化地理学、历史地理学、医学地理学、政治地理学、军事地理学、地图学、地名学、理论地理学、区域地理学、应用地理学、灾害地理学相关学科与自然地理学相关的基础科学：物理学，数学，化学，天文学，生物学，考古学，地质学等，尤以地质学和古生物学最为重要。与人文地理相关的基础学科：经济，政治，历史等。学科研究播报编辑研究特点地理学是在研究地球表面的过程中逐渐形成的，并不断完善其理论、方法和手段。它具有下述特点。综合性作为研究对象的地球表面是一个多种要素相互作用的综合体，决定了地理学研究的综合性特点。地理学研究地球表面，不限于研究其各个要素，更重要的是把它作为统一的整体，综合地研究其组成要素及它们的空间组合。它着重研究各种要素之间的相互作用、相互关系以及地表综合体的特征和时、空变化规律。当然，由于地球表面的复杂性，可以对某一要素进行部门的研究，但这种研究是在地理学综合性的基础上进行的。因此，地理学的部门学科与一些相邻学科虽然有着共同的研究对象，但在研究目的、内容和方法上是不相同的。地理学的部门学科之所以成为地理学的一部分，不仅在其研究的客体是地球表面的一个有机组成部分，而且在方法论上有着共同的基础──综合性。因此，地理学是一门综合性的学科。地理学的综合性研究分为不同的层次：两个要素相互关系(如气候和水文的关系，或土壤和植物的关系等)的综合研究，是低层次的综合性研究；多个要素相互关系（如地貌、水文、气候、植被和土壤的关系，或聚落、城市、交通、政治等关系）的综合研究，是中层次的综合性研究；地球表面全部要素（包括自然、经济、政治、社会文化）之间相互关系的综合研究，是高层次的综合性研究。层次不同，综合的复杂程度也不同，层次越高复杂程度越大，综合的难度也越大。低层次、中层次的综合研究分别形成地理学的一些分支学科（如自然地理学、人文地理学等），这些综合研究不是地理学所独有的，生态学、社会学等学科也进行综合性研究。但是，高层次的综合研究，即人地相关性的研究，则是地理学所特有的。综合性的特点决定了地理学的性质是一个横断学科。它与研究地球表面某一个圈层或某一个圈层中部分要素的学科，如研究大气圈的大气科学，研究水圈的水文科学，研究岩石圈的地质学，研究生物圈的生命科学，研究人类圈中社会经济、政治、文化、人口等要素的经济学、政治学、文化学、人口学，以至心理学、行为科学等，都有密切关系。地理学从这些学科吸取有关各种要素的专门知识，反过来又为这些学科提供关于各种要素及与其他现象间空间联系的知识。事实上，许多研究地球表面某一圈层或某一圈层中部分要素的学科是从地理学中分化发展而成的，如水文科学、海洋科学等。区域性地球表面自然现象和人文现象空间分布不均一的特点，决定了地理学研究的区域性特点。由于不同的地区存在不同的自然现象和人文现象，一种要素在一个地区呈现出的变化规律性在另一个地区不可能完全相同，因此研究地理区域就要剖析不同区域内部的结构（各种成分之间、各部分之间的关系）。地理学区域性研究内容，包括区域内部结构和区际关系两个方面。这两方面相统一的研究任务，其他学科是难以担当的，所以很多地理学者认为：区域研究“是地理学研究的核心”。地理学的区域研究根据研究对象的范围分为 3个尺度：大尺度区域研究着重探讨全球或全大陆范围内的分异规律和内部结构特征；小尺度区域研究是揭示局部地区区域特征和分异规律，以及该地区对中尺度区域分异的作用。动态性地球表面不断变化的特征，决定了地理学须以动态观点进行研究的特点。地理学研究既注重空间的变化，也注意时间的变化。地理现象无论是自然的或人文的，都是不断变化的。这种变化有周期性的，也有非周期性的；有长周期的，也有短周期的。用动态的观点研究地理学，要求把现代地理现象作为历史发展的结果和未来发展的起点，要求研究不同发展时期和不同历史阶段地理现象的发生、发展及其演变规律。这不仅是地理学本身发展的需要，而且也是地理学在国家建设、区域开发中发挥作用的需要。特别是现代地理学已经有可能对于某些区域的未来发展提出预测，并根据预测结果进行控制和管理，以便满足人们对区域发展的要求。因此，时间和空间统一的观念，在地理学研究中越来越受到重视。方法的多样性地球表面的复杂性决定了地理学研究方法的多样性。现代地理学研究主要采用野外考察与室内实验、模拟相结合的研究方法。地理学的研究对象是地球表面，关于地球表面的属性和特征，大部分数据和第一手资料主要来自野外考察，随着航空遥感技术的飞速发展，气象卫星、地球资源卫星、航天技术的成果广泛应用于地理学，提高了野外考察的速度和精度。地理定位研究、室内实验分析和地理数据的电子计算机处理、各种地理现象的实验室模拟（包括物理模型模拟和电子计算机模拟）等迅速开展起来，不仅大大地提高了工作效率，还取得了大量过去所没有的资料和数据，促进了地理学的发展。研究方法随着科学技术的进步，地理学研究方法不断发展变化。地理学研究始于观察。19世纪以前，以定性描述为主的地理考察、地理探险和与之相联系的地图是地理学研究的基本手段和方法。19世纪德国A.von洪堡把自然界作为互相联系、互相影响的一个整体，对不同地域不同环境的现象进行比较研究，创立地理比较法。当初的地理比较法仅限于直观的地理比较，即通过地理考察搜集大量第一手资料，直接进行或采用地图方法进行地理要素之间或区域地理特征之间的分析对比，形成对地理环境的认识。此后，与抽象概括和数量表达有关的许多新方法逐步引入地理学研究，以代替单纯描述性的方法，促进了地理学研究方法的革新。主要有地理定位研究、数学方法、遥感方法、系统方法和模拟法等。新方法的使用促使地理学由纯粹的定性研究逐步走向定性与定量相结合，由静态研究走向动态研究，由单纯的资料累积走向机制探讨，乃至趋势分析，使地理学步入现代科学的行列。定位研究最早出现于19世纪40年代，但其真正发展是从20世纪中期开始，随着更加深入地认识地理环境，开展了若干实验研究。地理学研究的对象是一个极为广阔的空间，在时间上和地区上又处在不断的变化之中，凭借简单的手工工具和视力观察很难触及它们的本质。建立定位实验研究，可以得到长期、连续、可靠的地理信息，以此进行较深层次的理论解释。（见地理定位研究）数学方法第二次世界大战以后开始引进地理学研究。庞大复杂的研究对象和简单的研究方法及手段成为地理学发展缓慢的一个重要原因。引用数学、物理等学科的精确方法和新技术成为地理学界的愿望和长期努力的目标。数学方法可使地理学变得比较严谨、精确和完善。数学严密的公理体系、数学思维和数学结构，对于地理学具有理论和实践意义。地理学利用它们来解释地理现象及其变化，用定量指标来表达地理结构，提高了地理学研究的严谨性、系统性和精确度，并由此产生了地理数量方法。电子计算机的应用使大量的地理信息能及时、准确地得到处理。利用电子计算机整理资料，要求地理资料规范化、数值化，但地理学的数字资料还不够充分、精确度不高。因此，采用数学方法并不意味着可以轻视传统方法，两者是互为补充、相辅相成的。遥感方法1961年苏联人造地球卫星拍摄了地球表面像片。卫星图像已经成为地理学研究的一个很普及的工具。遥感方法从根本上改变了过去的地理考察方法和凭借人力的简单观察，在广度和深度上扩大了视野，获得的地理信息数量大大增加。系统方法在地理学中的广泛应用是从20世纪50年代开始的。由于系统论的出现而产生了地理系统概念。地理学位于自然科学和社会科学的交接点上，由许多相对独立而又相互联系的一些分支学科所组成，因此综合研究地理系统显得尤其重要。系统方法为这种研究提供了重要手段。模拟方法种类很多，地理学多应用数学和物理模拟。它的意义在于条理化、简化、概括所研究的事物和过程，以深入探明其本质和活动规律。在地理学中已建立了很多模型，如自然综合体、生产综合体、城市、土地利用、人口分布、运输流等。但也不是所有的事物和过程都能用模型加以确切的表示，甚至有时建立模型时的简化会歪曲事物和过程的本来面目，故在建立模型时应加以注意。学科应用播报编辑地理学地理学聚焦陆地表层系统,在局地、区域和全球不同尺度环境变化与经济发展的决策中发挥着重要作用。针对中国快速发展中所面临的众多资源环境生态与可持续发展中的问题,中国地理学的发展需要聚焦国家重大需求,为政府决策提供科学支撑,在应用中得到持续发展,逐渐形成具有鲜明特色的中国地理学派。地理学不仅在国际地缘政治中拥有良好应用发展前景,更在国内决策中的应用案例众多,诸如新型城镇化、生态系统保护与恢复、流域水资源管理等。在这些案例应用中，综合研究是地理学在科学和决策方面非常重要的途径。 [1]（1）新型城镇化。新型城镇化需要考虑城镇化的人文要素、水土资源对城镇化的保障水平、资源环境的承载能力等[17]。首先,城镇化的核心是人的城镇化,城镇化研究首先需要分析人文要素,识别人是如何在城市中聚集,没有人的聚拢集中很难产生城镇化。城镇化的人文要素研究,包括人口如何向城镇聚集,通过什么样的引力聚集,涉及到城镇经济结构、就业结构、产业结构,以及城镇居民点如何布局等,即研究城镇化的人文过程。其次,城镇化发展过程要和资源相互作用,探究土地资源、水资源是否支撑城镇化的发展。对于资源性的城市,矿产资源的开采潜力、城市未来转型方向和途径等尤其值得考虑。在城镇化与环境的关系中,需要关注盛行风向即大气污染物的来源等,而位于水源地或湖区周边的城镇,需要考虑到水污染、土壤污染和生态环境破坏的程度。此外,人文地理学还研究城镇化的空间分异与发展模式,包括东部沿海的城镇化模式、西部脆弱生态区城镇化模式,以及中部崛起的城镇化模式等。 [1]（2）生态系统保护与恢复。气候变化和人类活动深刻改变着生态系统的结构与功能。而生态过程与服务的作用机理亟待深化。在小尺度上研究森林的侵蚀控制、森林中的径流如何产生,可以通过定位监测来研究它的机理。但在区域尺度,除了森林以外,农田、草地,城市等多种景观类型需要通过调查和遥感综合的研究方法来分析其时空格局变化,以及如何对这些生态系统进行综合评估、预测未来变化情景、完成布局优化等。在生态保护与恢复研究中,还需要注重生态环境保护与区域经济的协同发展,使生态系统服务能够可持续地为人类提供福祉。在将科学研究结果应用于政府决策时,需要把结构、过程和服务之间的关联机理与决策内容结合起来,综合多尺度研究结果,整合到政府具有可操作性的管理尺度（如市、县或乡镇）,进而服务于城乡融合与区域可持续发展。 [1]（3）流域水资源管理。流域水资源管理往往需要协调流域上中下游的水资源分配问题。如上游主要是以生态保护为主,进行水源涵养;中游是以农田开发,而下游往往是以城镇建设为中心。中、下游的生态经济活动和上游生态恢复都需要水资源,为进行水资源在流域中的综合调配与保护,不仅需要研究生态过程、地表水过程、地下水过程、冰冻过程等自然过程,还需要关注水的市场价值、水资源调配等社会经济过程,以及自然过程和社会过程的相互影响、相互约束和权衡协同关系等。流域水资源综合管理,往往需要建立一个决策支持系统,预警未来变化;而其中的模型往往涉及水文、生态、经济等不同类型的模型。如黑河生态水文集成研究计划就是要把水文模型、生态模型、经济模型进行耦合,建立决策支持系统,对未来变化进行模拟预测。流域耦合需要从多个方面开展研究。在数据方面,需要有植被、土地、气候、社会经济等基础数据,并在研究单元中进行数据耦合;在模型方面,有必要在模型中进行要素的耦合,如水和经济之间的关系、水和生态之间的关系、水文过程之间的关系等;在此基础上建立决策支持系统,针对不同产业之间、不同生态过程之间和不同时空尺度之间进行模拟测算与调配水资源。 [1]学科评估播报编辑地理学（0705）全国第四轮学科评估结果高校名称高校代码主校区所在地学科评估等级北京大学10001北京市A+北京师范大学10027北京市A+中国科学院大学14430北京市A+华东师范大学10269上海市A南京大学10284南京市A-南京师范大学10319南京市A-武汉大学10486武汉市A-首都师范大学10028北京市B+东北师范大学10200长春市B+福建师范大学10394福州市B+河南大学10475郑州市B+中山大学10558广州市B+云南师范大学10681昆明市B+兰州大学10730兰州市B+华中师范大学10511武汉市B湖南师范大学10542长沙市B华南师范大学10574广州市B西北大学10697西安市B陕西师范大学10718西安市B辽宁师范大学10165大连市B-哈尔滨师范大学10231哈尔滨市B-山东师范大学10445济南市B-西南大学10635重庆市B-贵州师范大学10663贵阳市B-西北师范大学10736兰州市B-河北师范大学10094石家庄市C+浙江师范大学10345金华市C+安徽师范大学10370芜湖市C+中国海洋大学10423青岛市C+青海师范大学10746西宁市C+新疆大学10755乌鲁木齐市C+天津师范大学10065天津市C河海大学10294南京市C江苏师范大学10320徐州市C江西师范大学10414南昌市C中国地质大学（武汉）10491武汉市C湖北大学10512武汉市C内蒙古师范大学10135呼和浩特市C-上海师范大学10270上海市C-南京信息工程大学10300南京市C-四川师范大学10636成都市C-重庆师范大学10637重庆市C-云南大学10673昆明市C-广州大学11078广州市C-注：地理学学科中，全国具有“博士授权”的高校共31所，本次参评29所；部分具有“硕士授权”的高校也参加了评估；参评高校共计60所。（注：评估结果相同的高校排序不分先后，按学校代码排列） [4]地理学家播报编辑中国（1）古代地理学家：中国古代地理学家众多，体现为旅游、方志、建筑、测量测绘、天文学等多个方面。例如：郦道元、沈括、徐霞客、张衡、一行、南宫说、郭守敬、裴秀、徐光启、乐史、罗洪先、贾耽、朱思本、晏谟、王士性、何秋涛、严如煜、顾炎武、徐继畲、杨守敬、于钦。另外有一些人物，也对古代地理学发展产生了重大作用，例如：张骞父子、班超父子、法显（晋代高僧）、玄奘（唐代高僧）、郑和等。（2）近代地理学家：中国近现代地理学发展迅速，涌现出一批著名地理学家。20世纪的100年，是中国地理学从常识型向科学型转变的100年；是中国地理学从表象描述为主向深层认识为主的100年；也是中国地理学更加融入国家建设和经济发展的100年。原《地理知识》编辑部从1985年起，开辟了”当代中国地理学家专访” 栏目，采访和记录我国老一辈地理学家的治学之道和所从事的事业。2002年，学苑出版社将部分内容整理出版了《中国现代地理学家的足迹》（刘纪远主编）。该书列举了中国老一辈地理学家的生平事迹，包括：20世纪我国第一位地理学家—— 张相文我国地理学界的表率—— 竺可桢教授刍议竺可桢成功之路——以他的代表作为例征途处处乐无垠——自然地理学家林超教授中国综合自然地理区划的奠基者—— 黄秉维院士的道路与奉献第三次冲锋——访人口地理学家胡焕庸教授雪后青松更苍劲——访人文地理学家李旭旦教授情满山海——中科院院士地理学泰斗任美锷的故事三个第一流——访区域地理学家李春芬教授献身地理科学坚持理论研究——访经济地理学家曹廷藩教授无止境的实践与探索——记中国国情研究专家周立三院士业精于勤锲而不舍——访地图制图学家曾世英教授开创中国地理学史研究的新篇章——访地理学史专家王成组教授中国现代冰川学的开拓者——访冰川学家施雅风院士从沿革地理学向历史地理学的飞跃——访现代历史地理学家史念海教授足迹——访北京历史地理学家侯仁之院士中国新生代古地理研究的带头人——访古地理学家周廷儒院士在地理学上默默耕耘——记自然地理学家罗开富教授一位地理学家的求索——访遥感地理学家陈述彭院士为了中国地理学的腾飞——访经济地理学家吴传钧院士老骥伏枥志在千里——访历史地理学家谭其骧院士为发展我国政治地理学作贡献——访政治地理学家鲍觉民教授经艰险跋涉考察边疆地理——访边疆地理学家严德一教授溯源而进——访地理学理论与实践专家沈玉昌教授良师益友——记地貌学家王乃梁教授编辑甘苦一夕谈——访著名地理编辑学家高泳源教授从学者到所长——访气候学家左大康教授我国环境科学研究的先行者——记环境学家刘培桐教授沼泽学领域里探索——访沼泽学家黄锡畴教授愿作沙漠科学事业的铺路石——记沙漠学家朱震达教授献身环境科学的战士——访环境学家章申院士全球斐迪南·麦哲伦（全名费迪南德·麦哲伦，葡萄牙语：Fernão de Magalhães；西班牙语Fernando de Magallanes）他为西班牙政府效力探险。1519年-1521年率领船队首次环航地球，死于菲律宾的部族冲突中。虽然他没有亲自环球，他船上的水手在他死后继续向西航行，回到欧洲。证实了地球是圆形的说法。埃拉托斯特尼(276BC - 194BC) - 计算地球大小。托勒密(c.90–c.168) - 编译希腊及罗马知识而成著作《地理学》（Geographia）。郦道元（466-527）- 《水经注》的作者，北魏地理学家、散文家，中国历史上最伟大的地理学家之一。沈括（1031-1095）-北宋科学家、地理学家、《梦溪笔谈》的作者。吉哈德斯·墨卡托（Gerardus Mercator） (1512-1594) - 创新的地图学家制作了麦卡托投影法。徐霞客（1587-1641）- 中国明朝著名旅行家及地理学家，以《徐霞客游记》闻名于世。其游记为后人提供了丰富的人文地理和自然地理的历史资料。亚历山大·冯·洪堡（Alexander von Humboldt）(1769–1859) - 被视为现代地理学之父之一，出版了《宇宙》（Kosmos）及创立了地理学的分支。卡尔·李特尔（Carl Ritter） (1779-1859) - 被视为现代地理学之父之一。稳占柏林洪堡大学(Humboldt University of Berlin)的第一把交椅。阿诺德·亨利·盖奥特（Arnold Henry Guyot） (1807-1884) - 在冰川结构、冰川运动，特别是快速冰流（ice flow）的高度认识享誉盛名。菲利克斯·菲利普·卡尼茨（Felix Philipp Kanitz）（1829-1904）奥匈帝国地理学家，以地理笔记而闻名。威廉·莫里斯·戴维斯（William Morris Davis） (1850-1934) - 美国哈佛大学（Harvard University）的地理学家，地貌学家，气象学家和地质学家，被称为美国地理学之父。他是侵蚀循环（cycle of erosion）的发展者。美国地理学家协会（Association of American Geographers）的创始人。韦达素灶士（Paul Vidal de la Blache） (1845-1918) - 法国地质政治学学校创办人及提出人文地理学原则。麦金德爵士 (1861-1947) -伦敦政治经济学院（London School of Economics）的共同创办人，之后帮助创立了英国地理协会（Geographical Association）、雷丁大学（Reading University），并成为英国地理协会会长，《历史的地理枢纽》（The Geographical Pivot of History）及心脏地带（Heartland）理论作者。阿尔弗莱德·韦伯（Alfred Weber）（1868—1958）-德国的经济地理学家，海德堡大学（University of Heidelberg）教授，提出了最少花费中心的经济地理学理论。瓦尔特·克里斯塔勒(1893-1969) - 人文地理学家及中心地理论发明者。威廉·戈登·伊斯特（William Gordon East）（1902-1998）-英国剑桥大学（Cambridge University）的著名地理学家及地理学作家,主要研究政治地理学。达比（1909～）Darby，Sir Henry Clifford，英国历史地理学家。长期研究英国区域历史地理，认为地理景观演变是历史地理学研究的问题之一。著有《中世纪沼泽地》、《1800年以前的英国历史地理》和《英国历史地理新编》等。托尔斯顿·哈格斯特朗（Tolsten Hagerstrand）（1916-2004）-瑞典地理学家，隆德大学（Lund University）教授，以研究人口迁徙和时间空间分布而著名。段义孚（Yi-Fu Tuan） (1930-) -美籍华人学者,威斯康星大学麦迪逊分校（University of Wisconsin - Madison）教授，开展人性地理学（Humanistic Geography）作为一个学科。他有很多地理以外的人性方面著作，其中《逃避主义》、《支配与喜好》、《无边的恐惧》、《割裂的世界与自我》等在中国较受欢迎。罗格·汤林森（Roger Tomlinson）（1933- ）-英国地理学家，GIS之父。在加拿大麦吉尔大学（McGill University）以及英国伦敦大学学院（University College London）的科研学习期间他逐渐提出了地理信息系统的概念。后为加拿大政府工作，并在伦敦大学学院作为名誉讲师。朱利安·沃尔帕特（Julian Wolpert）（1933- ）-著名地理政策学家和城市规划专家，美国普林斯顿大学（Princeton University）教授。大卫．哈维（David Harvey） (1935-) -马克思主义地理学（Marxist geography）家，《空间及城市地理学理论》作者，英国布里斯托大学（University of Bristol）教授。阿兰·威尔逊（Alan Wilson）（1939-）-英国著名数学家、社会学家和地理学家，以研究空间分析和地理统计学而闻名，原利兹大学（Leeds University）副校长，伦敦大学学院教授。迈克尔·弗兰克斯·古特柴尔德（Michael F. Goodchild） (1944-) -加州大学圣塔芭芭拉分校（University of California, Santa Barbara）的著名地理学教授，著名地理信息系统学者及在2003年获颁皇家地理学会（Royal Geographical Society）创会奖项，最早系统总结地理信息系统的人。NCGIA主任，美国国家科学基金会社会行为学顾问委员会主席。奈杰尔思瑞夫特（Nigel Thrift） (1949-)-非表象理论（non-representational theory）发起人，人文地理学家，英国华威大学（University of Warwick）的副校长。阿兰·马可恩彻（Alan MacEachren）（1952- ）-著名地理信息系统学者及计算机学者，斯坦福大学（Stanford University）客座教授，宾夕法尼亚州立大学(The Pennsylvania State University - University Park)终身教授，在地理数据可视化领域为国际知名专家，美国计算机协会，电子和电气工程师协会，英国、加拿大和美国的地图制图学会以及美国国家科学院的成员。新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号京公网安备110000020000

自然地理学（学科）_百度百科

学（学科）_百度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心自然地理学是一个多义词，请在下列义项上选择浏览（共9个义项）展开添加义项自然地理学播报讨论上传视频学科收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10本词条由“科普中国”科学百科词条编写与应用工作项目审核。自然地理学是一门研究自然地理环境的组成、结构、空间分异特征、形成与发展变化规律，以及人与环境相互关系的学科。 [1]中文名自然地理学外文名Physical Geography分类综合性和部门性所属分类地理学目录1研究内容2分类3研究历史4研究方法5应用研究内容播报编辑自然地理学的研究对象是自然地理环境，包括只受到人类间接或轻微影响，而原有自然面貌未发生明显变化的天然环境，和长期受到人类直接影响而使原有自然面貌发生重大变化的人为环境。自然地理环境是指地球表面，具有一定厚度的圈层，即岩石圈、水圈、大气圈、生物圈相互作用、相互渗透的区间内的一个特殊圈层。它是在太阳辐射能、地球内能和生物能作用下形成的，比地球的其他圈层的特征要复杂得多。在这里各种固体、液体、气体状态的物质同时稳定地存在并且相互渗透。只有在地球的这一部分才具有生物产生和繁衍的条件，并成为生物圈进一步发展的强大因素。人类出现后，又成为人类生活和生产活动的环境。自然地理学的研究内容随着学科的发展越来越广泛，但主要还是研究各自然地理成分的特征、结构、成因、动态和发展规律；研究各自然地理成分之间的相互关系，彼此之间的物质和能量的循环与转化的动态过程；研究自然地理环境的地域分异规律；研究各个区域的部门自然地理和综合自然地理特征，并进行自然条件和自然资源的评价，为区域开发提供科学依据；研究受人类干扰、控制的人为环境的变化特点、发展趋势、存在的问题，寻求合理利用的途径和整治措施。随着自然地理学的发展以及与许多自然科学发生联系，形成了众多的分支学科。按研究的特点，自然地理学可分为综合性的和部门性的两组分支学科。综合自然地理学是研究自然地理环境整体的综合特征的学科。分类播报编辑综合自然地理着重对自然地理环境整体特征——自然景观进行系统综合研究，是自然地理学的重要分支学科。它包括综合自然区划研究、土地类型研究和自然综合过程研究等几部分。综合自然区划研究的特点是按地域分异规律对地球表层进行区域系统的划分，划分出的地域单元是彼此不重复出现的；土地类型研究的特点是按地段分异规律进行类型系统的划分，划分出的类型单元在地表是重复出现的；自然综合过程研究包括现代物理过程（热量水分平衡）、化学过程（化学元素迁移与平衡）、生物过程（生物地理群落与生态平衡）和时间过程（古地理过程）等。现代地理过程的综合结果展现了自然地理环境的现代特征，古地理过程的综合结果是自然地理的古环境。现代自然地理环境是古地理环境演替的结果与延续。部门自然地理是从自然地理各组成要素角度进行研究，阐明各要素的类型、特征、过程和与其它要素相互作用关系与结果的学科。主要包括地貌学、气候学、水文地理学、土壤地理学、植物区系与植物地理学、动物地理学、化学地理学、医学地理学、海洋地理学等学科。区域自然地理学是研究某一特定地区的自然地理要素之间的相互关系和自然地理环境的特征、结构、发展变化的学科，也是区域地理学的分支学科。古地理学是研究和重建地质时期地球表面自然地理现象的学科。历史自然地理学是研究近一万年来人类历史时期自然地理环境的变化及其规律的学科，也是历史地理学的分支学科。其他另外，有普通自然地理学，它是研究自然地理环境的物质组成、结构特征形成和变化规律的学科，也有人认为它是综合自然地理学的分支学科。部门性的分支学科有地貌学、气候学、水文地理学，土壤地理学、生物地理学、冰川学、冻土学、化学地理学和医学地理学等。地貌学、气候学、水文地理学、土壤地理学、生物地理学是在研究自然地理环境整体的基础上以自然地理环境的某一成分为研究对象，研究其组成、结构、动态及分布等特征和规律。它们的形成与某些自然科学有关，是自然地理学与相邻的其他科学的边缘学科。地貌学又称地形学，是研究地球表面的形态特征、成因、分布及其演变规律的学科，是自然地理学与地质学的边缘学科。气候学是研究气候特征、形成、分布和演变规律，以及气候与其他自然因子和人类活动的关系的学科，是自然地理学与大气科学的边缘学科。自然地理水文地理学，研究地球表面各类水体的性质、形态特征变化与时程分配，以及分布规律的学科，是自然地理学与水文学的边缘学科。土壤地理学是研究土壤与地理环境的关系的学科，是自然地理学与土壤学的边缘学科。植物地理学是研究植被空间分布规律的学科，是自然地理学与植物学的边缘学科。动物地理学是研究动物在地璋表面的分布及其生态地理规律的学科，是自然地理学与动物学的边缘学科。以独特的自然综合体或自然地理环境的某一方面为研究对象的分支学科有：冰川学是研究地球表面各种自然冰体的形成、特征、发育及其分布规律的学科。冻土学是研究冻土的形成、特征、发育及其分布规律的学科。化学地理学是研究地理环境的化学组成和化学元素的分布、迁移转化规律的学科，是自然地理学与化学的边缘学科。医学地理学是研究人群疾病和健康状况的地理分布、与地理环境的关系，以及医疗保健机构和设施地域合理配置的学科。它既是地理学与医学的边缘学科，也是应用地理学的分支学科。此外，还有环境地理学、海洋地理学、荒漠学、河流学、沼泽学等分支学科。现代自然地理学不断加强定量分析、生态化和应用研究的同时，还注意吸收其他学科的新成就和研究方法，开始进行地理预测研究，并将更加重视全球环境问题。同时，自然地理学研究与人文地理学研究将越来越紧密的联系在一起。研究历史播报编辑人类的地理知识起源于远古时代。但自然地理这一术语始用于17世纪，至18世纪后半期已广为流行。自然地理学作为地理学中的一门学科，出现在近代地理学形成时期。自然地理学的发展大致可分为知识积累时期、近代时期、现代时期三个阶段。19世纪中期以前，地理学以地理知识的描述性记载为主，自然地理知识作为地理学的一个重要方面，主要是了解地球表面的自然现象、记录山川形势、游历探索四方奇胜，进行探险、发现活动等。早在公元前3000多年，古埃及人就开始观测尼罗河水位的变化。公元前5世纪，古希腊希罗多德在《历史》(又称《希腊波斯战争史》)一书中叙述了尼罗河夏季洪水的动态规律，并且指出河口三角洲是由河流带来的泥沙堆积而成。以后，亚里士多德把地球表面各种自然现象作为土、水、火和气四种基本原质的统一体。埃拉托色尼计算了地球的周长，用数学方法研究、确立地球表面经纬度和事物位置的方法，奠定了数理地理的基础，并且将地球划分出五个气候带。在欧洲，整个中世纪是封建闭塞和宗教观念统治时期，地理学几乎没有取得什么进步。15～17世纪是地理大发现时期，人类的地理视野大大地扩展，不但最终证实了大地球形说的正确性和地球存在着一个统一的世界大洋，还发现了洋流，确定了南北半球的信风带和对季风形成作出科学解释。这一时期收集的大量地表自然现象资料，为17世纪下半叶探讨海陆起源、植物和动物的分类等理论问题，以及综合地研究地球表面自然现象建立了基础。德国瓦伦纽斯总结了地理大发现时期的大量资料，发表了叙述和解释地球表面自然现象一般规律的著作《普通地理学》。18世纪法国布丰研究了人与自然环境的关系，认为人在改造自然界中有着巨大的力量，整个地球表面都有人类作用的烙印。这些都为自然地理学的建立提供了思想准备。水经注在中国，公元前13世纪殷代甲骨文中已有关于天气情况的记载。公元前11～前6世纪作于周代的的《诗经》记述了数十种地貌形态。战国时期成书的《尚书·禹贡》依据名山大川的自然分界将当时的疆域分为九州，并就山川、湖泽、土壤、植被等对各州进行区域对比。《管子·地员》篇是首创土地分类的著作，综合当时关于地貌、土壤和植被的知识，较为系统和详细地把土地分为5大类20多个小类，并记述了山地植被的垂直分布。西汉(公元前206～公元25)以前成书的《山经》对长江流域和黄河流域的自然条件以山为纲作了综合性记述。公元六世纪初，郦道元完成《水经注》，对中国1252条河流水道的源流、脉络和流经地区的地理情况作了详细的注释。11世纪时，沈括在《梦溪笔谈》中叙述了海陆变迁的事实，从河流沉积作用解释华北平原的成因，从流水侵蚀作用论述了雁荡诸峰的形成，还详细记载了物候现象。17世纪上半叶，徐霞客对喀斯特地貌、火山地貌、河谷纵横剖面发育、植物与环境的关系等作了详尽的记载和科学的分析，特别是对中国西南地区喀斯特地貌的描述非常详细，其中关于溶蚀洼地分类、钟乳石和溶洞形成，以及峰林的类型、分布与地质构造之间关系等的论述是当时的最高研究水平。19世纪初期德国洪堡和李特尔创建近代地理学。自然地理学开始成为一门独立的分支学科。从这时起，自然地理学由单一的、表象的、静态的自然地理成分和现象的研究走向把自然地理环境作为一个整体进行综合的、内在的和动态的研究。随着自然地理学研究的深入，许多分支学科，如地貌学、气候学、水文地理学、土壤地理学、植物地理学、动物地理学、冰川学、冻土学等迅速发展起来。洪堡德把自然地理环境看成一个整体，应用经验的和归纳的比较法，对不同区域、不同地理环境进行比较研究，认为地球表面各种自然现象之间存在着因果上和区域上的相互联系。他根据大量实地考察资料，论证了植物的水平分布和垂直分布与气候的关系，创立植物地理学；还首创世界等温线图，研究了气候的形成和分布，成为近代气候学研究的开端。洪堡德的贡献为自然地理学成为一门独立的分支学科奠定了基础。19世纪60年代开始，德国佩舍尔提倡用发生学观点来研究地球表面的自然特征，为自然地理学确立了地理学中分支学科的地位。李希霍芬创立了关于自然现象世界分布的一般概念，把自然地理学的研究论题引向地志学，即阐明特定地区内各种事物相互因果关系。地志学的概念受到赫特纳支持并加以详细论述，他的思想对德国自然地理学进展有深远影响，其重要结果是将注意力转向研究人类及其周围自然界与生物环境之间的关系。19世纪后期到20世纪初期，彭克探讨了地形的成因和形成过程，创用“地表形态学” 一词。他还将阿尔卑斯山的第四纪冰期划分为3个间冰期和4个冰期，对冰川学和第四纪地质学作出重要贡献。20世纪初，施吕特尔提出景观研究是地理学的中心目的，用历史地理学方法探索文化景观从原始(或自然)景观演化的现象和过程。他把自然地理学研究的注意力引向研究人类活动所创造的人类居住地。20世纪30年代末期，特罗尔创建景观生态学，对德国自然地理学的发展同样有着深刻影响。19世纪后半期，美国正处在西部大勘测时代，戴维斯在进化论思想影响下提出了侵蚀轮回学说，并提倡用“地形的解释性描述”来阐述地貌发育过程，对地貌学的建立和发展起了重要作用。以后，德国彭克又提出地貌演化学说。19世纪后期，在德国地理学思想影响下，俄国沃耶伊科夫从事地球热量与水分子衡研究，主张重视人类对环境的影响。俄国自然地理学创始人道库恰耶夫在论述土壤形成时提出自然综合体概念，并建立了自然地带学说。以后，他还提出地理景观概念，认识到人是地球表面的一个主要变动力量。20世纪前半期。贝尔格、格里戈里耶夫等发展了自然地带学说和景观学说，为发展自然地理学基本理论作出重要贡献。与欧美不同，苏联地理学家非常重视自然地理学研究，通常把研究注意力放在自然环境各个要素方面，自然地理学内部分化明显，在自然区划、景观制图、地球化学景观、生物地理群落和古地理学等方面研究取得显著进展。中国近代地理学是在引进欧美近代地理学的基础上逐步形成的。1908年，张相文编著了中国最早的自然地理学教科书《地文学》，开创了中国近代地理教育。从20年代起，竺可桢对气候学进行了广泛深入的研究。中国地理学者对中国的地貌、气候、水文、土壤和植被等进行广泛的考察研究，从50年代起对青藏高原、黄土高原、新疆、黄淮海平原和海岸带，以及冰川、冻土、沙漠等进行了系统考察，自然区域研究迅速发展。从60年代开始，地理学出现了重大变革，建立了地理系统学说，从学科分化走向新的综合。在综合研究的基础上，又发展了新的分支学科。在研究方法上，引进了电子计算机和遥感技术，加强了定量分析研究。研究方法播报编辑这时期的自然地理学注重定量分析，并把定量分析和定性分析紧密结合。主要是通过建立综合性实验站和使用遥感技术，观测自然地理系统内的能量和物质的转换形式、动态过程，获取范围广和连续的各种自然地理信息，应用数学方法和电子计算机处理和分析各种信息如遥感技术、地理信息系统，通过模拟实验建立系统结构模式和动态变化的数学模式等，深入研究自然地理系统的结构特征，预测变化趋向。注意运用生态学的观点对自然地理系统进行研究，注重人类对环境作用的后果，并由此而发展了生态地理学、景观生态学等。应用播报编辑运用自然地理学的研究成果，参与解决农业生产、工程建设、资源开发利用、地理环境污染和治理等问题，由此而发展了应用气候学、应用地貌学、资源地理学、环境地理学、医学地理学等应用性分支学科。新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 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1.1 Geography Basics – World Regional Geography

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Contents

Publisher InformationAbout the Author Chapter 1: Introduction to the World1.1 Geography Basics1.2 The Environment and Human Activity1.3 Population and Culture1.4 Globalization and Development1.5 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 2: Europe2.1 Introducing the Realm2.2 Historical Development Patterns2.3 Regions of Western Europe2.4 Eastern Europe2.5 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 3: Russia3.1 Introducing the Realm3.2 The USSR and the Russian Federation3.3 Regions of Russia3.4 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 4: North America4.1 Introducing the Realm4.2 United States: Early Development and Globalization4.3 United States: Population and Religion4.4 Canada4.5 Regions of the United States and Canada4.6 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 5: Middle America5.1 Introducing the Realm5.2 Mexico5.3 Central America5.4 The Caribbean5.5 Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes)5.6 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 6: South America6.5 End-of-Chapter Material6.1 Introducing the Realm6.2 Urban North and Andean West6.3 Brazil6.4 The Southern ConeChapter 7: Subsaharan Africa7.1 Introducing the Realm7.2 Human Geography of Subsaharan Africa7.3 West Africa7.4 Central Africa7.5 East Africa7.6 Southern Africa7.7 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 8: North Africa and Southwest Asia8.1 Introducing the Realm8.2 Muhammad and Islam8.3 North Africa and the African Transition Zone8.4 Israel and Its Neighbors8.5 Arabs, Islam, and Oil8.6 Iraq, Turkey, and Iran8.7 Central Asia and Afghanistan8.8 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 9: South Asia9.1 Introducing the Realm9.2 The Peripheral States of South Asia9.3 Pakistan and Bangladesh9.4 India9.5 Religions of India and South Asia9.6 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 10: East Asia10.1 Introducing the Realm10.2 Emerging China10.3 China’s Periphery10.4 Japan and Korea (North and South)10.5 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 11: Southeast Asia11.1 Introducing the Realm11.2 The Mainland Countries11.3 The Insular Region (Islands of Southeast Asia)11.4 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 12: Australia and New Zealand12.1 Introducing the Realm12.2 Australia12.3 New Zealand12.4 End-of-Chapter MaterialChapter 13: The Pacific and Antarctica13.1 The Pacific Islands13.2 Antarctica13.3 End-of-Chapter Material

World Regional Geography

1.1 Geography Basics

Learning Objectives

Understand the focus of geography and the two main branches of the discipline.

Learn about the tools geographers use to study the earth’s surface.

Summarize the grid system of latitude and longitude and how it relates to seasons and time zones.

Distinguish between the different types of regional distinctions recognized in geography.

Understand the spatial nature of geography and how each place or region is examined, analyzed, and compared with other places or regions.

Determine the basic geographic realms and their locations.

What Is Geography?

Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface (from the Greek geo, which means “Earth,” and graphein, which means “to write”). Geographers study the earth’s physical characteristics, its inhabitants and cultures, phenomena such as climate, and the earth’s place within the universe. Geography examines the spatial relationships between all physical and cultural phenomena in the world. Geographers also look at how the earth, its climate, and its landscapes are changing due to cultural intervention.

The first known use of the word geography was by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (modern-day Libya in North Africa), an early Greek scholar who lived between 276 and 194 BCE. He devised one of the first systems of longitude and latitude and calculated the earth’s circumference. Additionally, he created one of the first maps of the world based on the available knowledge of the time. Around the same time, many ancient cultures in China, southern Asia, Polynesia, and the Arabian Peninsula also developed maps and navigation systems used in geography and cartography.

The discipline of geography can be broken down into two main areas of focus: physical geography and human geography. These two main areas are similar in that they both use a spatial perspective, and they both include the study of place and the comparison of one place with another.

Physical geography is the spatial study of natural phenomena that make up the environment, such as rivers, mountains, landforms, weather, climate, soils, plants, and any other physical aspects of the earth’s surface. Physical geography focuses on geography as a form of earth science. It tends to emphasize the main physical parts of the earth—the lithosphere (surface layer), the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living organisms)—and the relationships between these parts.

The major forms of study within physical geography include the following:

Geomorphology (the study of the earth’s surface features)

Glaciology (the study of glaciers)

Coastal geography (the study of the coastal regions)

Climatology (the study of climates and climate change)

Biogeography (the study of the geographic patterns of species distribution)

Some physical geographers study the earth’s place in the solar system. Others are environmental geographers, part of an emerging field that studies the spatial aspects and cultural perceptions of the natural environment. Environmental geography requires an understanding of both physical and human geography, as well as an understanding of how humans conceptualize their environment and the physical landscape.

Physical landscape is the term used to describe the natural terrain at any one place on the planet. The natural forces of erosion, weather, tectonic plate action, and water have formed the earth’s physical features. Many US state and national parks attempt to preserve unique physical landscapes for the public to enjoy, such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon.

Human geography is the study of human activity and its relationship to the earth’s surface. Human geographers examine the spatial distribution of human populations, religions, languages, ethnicities, political systems, economics, urban dynamics, and other components of human activity. They study patterns of interaction between human cultures and various environments and focus on the causes and consequences of human settlement and distribution over the landscape. While the economic and cultural aspects of humanity are primary focuses of human geography, these aspects cannot be understood without describing the landscape on which economic and cultural activities take place.

The cultural landscape is the term used to describe those parts of the earth’s surface that have been altered or created by humans. For example, the urban cultural landscape of a city may include buildings, streets, signs, parking lots, or vehicles, while the rural cultural landscape may include fields, orchards, fences, barns, or farmsteads. Cultural forces unique to a given place—such as religion, language, ethnicity, customs, or heritage—influence the cultural landscape of that place at a given time. The colors, sizes, and shapes of the cultural landscape usually symbolize some level of significance regarding societal norms. Spatial dynamics assist in identifying and evaluating cultural differences between places.

Traditionally, the field of cartography, or map making, has been a vital discipline for geographers. While cartography continues to be an extremely important part of geography, geographers also look at spatial (space) and temporal (time) relationships between many types of data, including physical landscape types, economies, and human activity. Geography also examines the relationships between and the processes of humans and their physical and cultural environments. Because maps are powerful graphic tools that allow us to illustrate relationships and processes at work in the world, cartography and geographic information systems have become important in modern sciences. Maps are the most common method of illustrating different spatial qualities, and geographers create and use maps to communicate spatial data about the earth’s surface.

Geospatial techniques are tools used by geographers to illustrate, manage, and manipulate spatial data. Cartography is the art and science of making maps, which illustrate data in a spatial form and are invaluable in understanding what is going on at a given place at a given time.

Making maps and verifying a location have become more exact with the development of the global positioning system (GPS). A GPS unit can receive signals from orbiting satellites and calculate an exact location in latitude and longitude, which is helpful for determining where one is located on the earth or for verifying a point on a map. GPS units are standard equipment for many transportation systems and have found their way into products such as cell phones, handheld computers, fish finders, and other mobile equipment. GPS technology is widely implemented in the transport of people, goods, and services around the world.

Remote sensing technology acquires data about the earth’s surface through aerial photographs taken from airplanes or images created from satellites orbiting the earth. Remotely sensed images allow geographers to identify, understand, or explain a particular landscape or determine the land use of a place. These images can serve as important components in the cartographic (map-making) process. These technologies provide the means to examine and analyze changes on the earth’s surface caused by natural or human forces. Google Earth is an excellent example of a computer tool that illustrates remotely sensed images of locations on the earth.

Figure 1.1 Low Elevation Air Photo of Cultural Landscape in Morehead, Kentucky

Photo by R. Berglee – CC BY-NC-SA.

Geographic information science (GIS), often referred to as geographic information systems, uses a computer program to assimilate and manage many layers of map data, which then provide specific information about a given place. GIS data are usually in digital form and arranged in layers. The GIS computer program can sort or analyze layers of data to illustrate a specific feature or activity. GIS programs are used in a wide range of applications, from determining the habitat range of a particular species of bird to mapping the hometowns of university students.

Figure 1.2 Illustration of Layers in a GIS Process

GIS specialists often create and analyze geographical information for government agencies or private businesses. They use computer programs to take raw data to develop the information these organizations need for making vital decisions. For example, in business applications, GIS can be used to determine a favorable location for a retail store based on the analysis of spatial data layers such as population distribution, highway or street arrangements, and the locations of similar stores or competitive establishments. GIS can integrate a number of maps into one to help analysts understand a place in relation to their own specific needs.

GIS also focuses on storing information about the earth (both cultural and natural) in computer databases that can be retrieved and displayed in the form of specialized maps for specific purposes or analyses. GIS specialists require knowledge about computer and database systems. Over the last two decades, GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all cartography is now done with the assistance of GIS software. Additionally, analysis of various cultural and natural phenomena through the use of GIS software and specialized maps is an important part of urban planning and other social and physical sciences. GIS can also refer to techniques used to represent, analyze, and predict spatial relationships between different phenomena.

Geography is a much broader field than many people realize. Most people think of area studies as the whole of geography. In reality, geography is the study of the earth, including how human activity has changed it. Geography involves studies that are much broader than simply understanding the shape of the earth’s landforms. Physical geography involves all the planet’s physical systems. Human geography incorporates studies of human culture, spatial relationships, interactions between humans and the environment, and many other areas of research that involve the different subspecialties of geography. Students interested in a career in geography would be well served to learn geospatial techniques and gain skills and experience in GIS and remote sensing, as they are the areas within geography where employment opportunities have grown the most over the past few decades.

The Earth and Graticule Location

When identifying a region or location on the earth, the first step is to understand its relative and absolute locations. Relative location is the location on the earth’s surface with reference to other places, taking into consideration features such as transportation access or terrain. Relative location helps one compare the advantages of one location with those of another. Absolute location, on the other hand, refers to an exact point on the earth’s surface without regard to how that point is related to any other place. Absolute location is vital to the cartographic process and to human activities that require an agreed-upon method of identifying a place or point.

Just as you were taught in geometry that there are 360 degrees in a circle or a sphere, the earth also has 360 degrees, and they are measured using a grid pattern called the graticule. Lines of latitude and longitude allow any absolute location on the earth to have an identifiable address of degrees north or south and east or west, which allows geographers to accurately locate, measure, and study spatial activity.

Geographers and cartographers organize locations on the earth using a series of imaginary lines that encircle the globe. The two primary lines are the equator and the prime meridian. From these lines, the systems of longitude and latitude are formed, allowing you to locate yourself anywhere on the planet. The line is the longest when you travel along in an east-west direction. At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two equinoxes, which occur in March and September.

Figure 1.3 Basic Lines of Longitude and Latitude

Parallels or Lines of Latitude

Figure 1.4 Noted Lines of Latitude

The equator is the largest circle of latitude on Earth. The equator divides the earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and is called 0 degrees latitude. The other lines of latitude are numbered from 0 to 90 degrees going toward each of the poles. The lines north of the equator toward the North Pole are north latitude, and each of the numbers is followed by the letter “N.” The lines south of the equator toward the South Pole are south latitude, and each of the numbers is followed by the letter “S.” The equator (0 latitude) is the only line of latitude without any letter following the number. Notice that all lines of latitude are parallel to the equator (they are often called parallels) and that the North Pole equals 90 degrees N and the South Pole equals 90 degrees S. Noted parallels include both the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, which are 23.5 degrees from the equator. At 66.5 degrees from the equator are the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle near the North and South Pole, respectively.

Meridians or Lines of Longitude

The prime meridian sits at 0 degrees longitude and divides the earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The prime meridian is defined as an imaginary line that runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England, a suburb of London. The Eastern Hemisphere includes the continents of Europe, Asia, and Australia, while the Western Hemisphere includes North and South America. All meridians (lines of longitude) east of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180 degrees east (E); the lines west of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180 degrees west (W). The 0 and 180 lines do not have a letter attached to them. The meridian at 180 degrees is called the International Date Line. The International Date Line (180 degrees longitude) is opposite the prime meridian and indicates the start of each day (Monday, Tuesday, etc.). Each day officially starts at 12:01 a.m., at the International Date Line. Do not confuse the International Date Line with the prime meridian (0 longitude). The actual International Date Line does not follow the 180-degree meridian exactly. A number of alterations have been made to the International Date Line to accommodate political agreements to include an island or country on one side of the line or another.

Climate and Latitude

The earth is tilted on its axis 23.5 degrees. As it rotates around the sun, the tilt of the earth’s axis provides different climatic seasons because of the variations in the angle of direct sunlight on the planet. Places receiving more direct sunlight experience a warmer climate. Elsewhere, the increased angle of incoming solar radiation near the earth’s poles results in more reflected sunlight and thus a cooler climate. The Northern Hemisphere experiences winter when sunlight is reflected off the earth’s surface and less of the sun’s energy is absorbed because of a sharper angle from the sun.

The Tropic of Cancer is the parallel at 23.5 degrees north of the equator, which is the most northerly place on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer. Remember that the earth is tilted 23.5 degrees, which accounts for seasonal variations in climate. The Tropic of Capricorn is the parallel at 23.5 degrees south of the equator and is the most southerly location on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer.

The tropics (Cancer and Capricorn) are the two imaginary lines directly above which the sun shines on the two solstices, which occur on or near June 20 or 21 (summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere) and December 21 or 22 (winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere). The sun is directly above the Tropic of Cancer at noon on June 20 or 21, marking the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The sun is directly above the Tropic of Capricorn at noon on December 21 or 22, marking the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Solstices are the extreme ends of the seasons, when the line of direct sunlight is either the farthest north or the farthest south that it ever goes. The region between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is known as the tropics. This area does not experience dramatic seasonal changes because the amount of direct sunlight received does not vary widely. The higher latitudes (north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn) experience significant seasonal variation in climate.

Figure 1.5 Road Sign South of Dakhla, Western Sahara (Claimed by Morocco), Marking the Tropic of Cancer

This sign was placed in this desert location by the Budapest-Bamako rally participants. The non-English portion is in Hungarian because of the European participants in the race.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

The Arctic Circle is a line of latitude at 66.5 degrees north. It is the farthest point north that receives sunlight during its winter season (90 N − 23.5 = 66.5 N). During winter, the North Pole is away from the sun and does not receive much sunlight. At times, it is dark for most of the twenty-four-hour day. During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the North Pole faces more toward the sun and may receive sunlight for longer portions of the twenty-four-hour day. The Antarctic Circle is the corresponding line of latitude at 66.5 degrees south. It is the farthest location south that receives sunlight during the winter season in the Southern Hemisphere (90 S − 23.5 = 66.5 S). When it is winter in the north, it is summer in the south.

The Arctic and Antarctic Circles mark the extremities (southern and northern, respectively) of the polar day (twenty-four-hour sunlit day) and the polar night (twenty-four-hour sunless night). North of the Arctic Circle, the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year. This is true also near the Antarctic Circle, but it occurs south of the Antarctic Circle, toward the South Pole. Equinoxes, when the line of direct sunlight hits the equator and days and nights are of equal length, occur in the spring and fall on or around March 20 or 21 and September 22 or 23.

Figure 1.6 Graphic of the Four Seasons

Photo by R. Berglee – CC BY-NC-SA.

Time Zones

Universal Time (UT), Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Zulu Time (Z): all four terms can be defined as local time at 0 degrees longitude, which is the prime meridian (location of Greenwich, England). This is the same time under which many military operations, international radio broadcasts, and air traffic control systems operate worldwide. UTC is set in zero- to twenty-four-hour time periods, as opposed to two twelve-hour time periods (a.m. and p.m.). The designations of a.m. and p.m. are relative to the central meridian: a.m. refers to ante meridiem, or “before noon,” and p.m. refers to post meridiem, or “after noon.” UT, UTC, GMT, and Z all refer to the same twenty-four-hour time system that assists in unifying a common time in regard to global operations. For example, all air flights use the twenty-four-hour time system so the pilots can coordinate flights across time zones and around the world.

The earth rotates on its axis once every twenty-four hours at the rate of 15 degrees per hour (15 × 24 = 360). Time zones are established roughly every 15 degrees longitude so that local times correspond to similar hours of day and night. With this system, the sun is generally overhead at noon in every time zone that follows the 15-degree-wide system. The continental United States has four main time zones (see Table 1.1 “Four Main Time Zones in the Continental United States and Their Central Meridians” and Figure 1.7 “Major Time Zones of the World”).

Table 1.1 Four Main Time Zones in the Continental United States and Their Central Meridians

USA Time Zones

Central Meridian

Eastern standard time zone

75 degrees W

Central standard time zone

90 degrees W

Mountain standard time zone

105 degrees W

Pacific standard time zone

120 degrees W

Figure 1.7 Major Time Zones of the World

The twenty-four times zones are based on the prime meridian in regard to Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Zulu Time (Z), which all operate on the twenty-four-hour time clock. Local time zones are either plus or minus determined by the distance from the prime meridian.

Figure 1.8 Diagram Illustrating the Width of a Time Zone

In this diagram, 75 W is the central meridian for the eastern standard time zone in the United States.

The eastern standard time zone is five hours earlier than the time at the prime meridian (UTC) because it is about 75 degrees west of 0 degrees (5 × 15 = 75). For example, if it is noon in London, then it is 7 a.m. in New York. If it is 1 p.m. in New York, it is 10 a.m. in San Francisco, which is three times zones to the west. Since there are twenty-four hours in a day, there are twenty-four time zones on Earth. Each time zone is 15 degrees wide.

A problem with the 15-degree time zones is that the zones do not necessarily follow state, regional, or local boundaries. The result is that time zones are seldom exactly 15 degrees wide and usually have varied boundary lines. In the United States, the boundaries between the different time zones are inconsistent with the lines of longitude; in some cases, time zones zigzag to follow state lines or to keep cities within a single time zone. Other countries address the problem differently. China, for example, is as large in land area as the United States yet operates on only one time zone for the entire country.

Regions in Geography

A region is a basic unit of study in geography—a unit of space characterized by a feature such as a common government, language, political situation, or landform. A region can be a formal country governed by political boundaries, such as France or Canada; a region can be defined by a landform, such as the drainage basin of all the water that flows into the Mississippi River; and a region can even be defined by the area served by a shopping mall. Cultural regions can be defined by similarities in human activities, traditions, or cultural attributes. Geographers use the regional unit to map features of particular interest, and data can be compared between regions to help understand trends, identify patterns, or assist in explaining a particular phenomenon.

Regions are traditionally defined by internal characteristics that provide a sense of place. Their boundaries vary with the type of region, whether it is formal, functional, or vernacular; each type has its own meaning and defined purpose. A formal region has a governmental, administrative, or political boundary and can have political as well as geographic boundaries that are not open to dispute or debate. Formal boundaries can separate states, provinces, or countries from one another. Physical regions can be included within formal boundaries, such as the Rocky Mountains or New England. An official boundary, such as the boundary of a national park, can be considered a formal boundary. School districts, cities, and county governments have formal boundaries.

Natural physical geographic features have a huge influence on where political boundaries of formal regions are set. If you look at a world map, you will recognize that many political boundaries are natural features, such as rivers, mountain ranges, and large lakes. For example, between the United States and Mexico, the Rio Grande makes up a portion of the border. Likewise, between Canada and the United States, a major part of the eastern border is along the Saint Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes. Alpine mountain ranges in Europe create borders, such as the boundary between Switzerland and Italy.

While geographic features can serve as convenient formal borders, political disputes will often flare up in adjacent areas, particularly if valuable natural or cultural resources are found within the geographic features. Oil drilling near the coast of a sovereign country, for example, can cause a dispute between countries about which one has dominion over the oil resources. The exploitation of offshore fisheries can also be disputed. A Neolithic mummy of a man who died in 3300 BCE caused tension between Italy and Switzerland: the body was originally taken to Innsbruck, Switzerland, but when it was determined that the body was found about 90 meters (180 feet) inside the border of Italy, Italian officials laid claim to the body.

Functional regions have boundaries related to a practical function within a given area. When the function of an area ends, the functional region ends and its boundaries cease to exist. For example, a functional region can be defined by a newspaper service or delivery area. If the newspaper goes bankrupt, the functional region no longer exists. Church parishes, shopping malls, and business service areas are other examples of functional regions. They function to serve a region and may have established boundaries for limits of the area to which they will provide service. An example of a common service area—that is, a functional region—is the region to which a local pizza shop will deliver.

Vernacular regions have loosely defined boundaries based on people’s perceptions or thoughts. Vernacular regions can be fluid—that is, different people may have different opinions about the limits of the regions. Vernacular regions include concepts such as the region called the “Middle East.” Many people have a rough idea of the Middle East’s location but do not know precisely which countries make up the Middle East. Also, in the United States, the terms Midwest or South have many variations. Each individual might have a different idea about the location of the boundaries of the South or the Midwest. Whether the state of Kentucky belongs in the Midwest or in the South might be a matter of individual perception. Similarly, various regions of the United States have been referred to as the Rust Belt, Sun Belt, or Bible Belt without a clear definition of their boundaries. The limit of a vernacular area is more a matter of perception than of any formally agreed-upon criteria. Nevertheless, most people would recognize the general area being discussed when using one of the vernacular terms in a conversation.

Using a State as a Comparison Guide

In comparing one formal political region with another, it is often helpful to use a familiar country, state, province, or political unit as a reference or guide. Wherever you are located, you can research the statistical data for a formal region familiar to you to provide a common reference. The US state of Kentucky is one example that can be used to compare formal political regions. Kentucky ranks close to the middle range of the fifty US states in terms of its population of 4.3 million people. Kentucky is also within the median range of the fifty states in overall physical area. The state’s 40,409-square-mile physical area ranks it thirty-seventh in size in the United States. Kentucky is not as large in physical area as the western states but is larger in physical area than many of the eastern states. Kentucky includes part of the rural peripheral region of Appalachia, but the state also has cosmopolitan core urban centers such as Lexington and Louisville. Kentucky also borders the metropolitan city of Cincinnati. The rural peripheral regions of the state are home to agriculture and mining. The urban core areas are home to industry and service centers. Other US states could also be used as examples. Identifying a state’s geographical attributes provides readers both in and outside the United States with a comparison indicator for geographic purposes.

Figure 1.9

The state of Kentucky can be used as a comparison guide for understanding other formal political regions around the world.

World Regional Geography

World regional geography studies various world regions as they compare with the rest of the world. Factors for comparison include both the physical and the cultural landscape. The main questions are, Who lives there? What are their lives like? What do they do for a living? Physical factors of significance can include location, climate type, and terrain. Human factors include cultural traditions, ethnicity, language, religion, economics, and politics.

World regional geography focuses on regions of various sizes across the earth’s landscape and aspires to understand the unique character of regions in terms of their natural and cultural attributes. Spatial studies can play an important role in regional geography. The scientific approach can focus on the distribution of cultural and natural phenomena within regions as delimited by various natural and cultural factors. The focus is on the spatial relationships within any field of study, such as regional economics, resource management, regional planning, and landscape ecology.

Again, this textbook takes a regional approach with a focus on themes that illustrate the globalization process, which in turn helps us better understand our global community. The regions studied in world regional geography can be combined into larger portions called realms. Realms are large areas of the planet, usually with multiple regions, that share the same general geographic location. Regions are cohesive areas within each realm. The following eleven realms are outlined in this text:

Europe (Eastern Europe and Western Europe)

The Russian Realm (Russian republic of the former Soviet Union)

North America (United States and Canada)

Middle America (Caribbean, Mexico, Central America)

South America

North Africa, the Middle East and central Asia

Subsaharan Africa (Africa south of the Sahara Desert)

Southern Asia (India and its neighbors)

Eastern Asia (China, Mongolia, Japan, and the Koreas)

Southeast Asia (mainland region and the islands region)

Australia and the Pacific (including New Zealand)

Figure 1.10 Major World Realms

Key Takeaways

Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface. The discipline of geography bridges the social sciences with the physical sciences. The two main branches of geography include physical geography and human geography. GIS, GPS, and remote sensing are tools that geographers use to study the spatial nature of physical and human landscapes.

A grid system called the graticule divides the earth by lines of latitude and longitude that allow for the identification of absolute location on the earth’s surface through geometric coordinates measured in degrees. There are twenty-four time zones that are set at 15-degree intervals each and organize time intervals around the world.

The tilt of the earth’s axis at 23.5 degrees helps create the earth’s seasonal transitions by either absorbing or reflecting the sun’s energy. The line of direct sunlight always hits the earth between 23.5 degrees north (Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5 degrees south (Tropic of Capricorn), depending on the time of year.

A region is the basic unit of study in geography. Three main types of boundaries define a region: formal, functional, and vernacular. World regional geography is the study of a particular group of world regions or realms as each compares with the rest of the world.

Discussion and Study Questions

How does the discipline of geography provide a bridge between the social sciences and the physical sciences?

How does the cultural landscape assist in indicating the differences between a wealthy neighborhood and a poverty-stricken neighborhood?

How can remote sensing technology assist in determining what people do for a living?

What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn?

What occupations depend on knowledge of the seasons for their success?

If it is 4 p.m. in San Francisco, what time is it in London, England?

How would GIS, GPS, or remote sensing technology be used to evaluate the destruction caused by a tornado in Oklahoma?

How is the cultural landscape influenced by the physical landscape?

Can you list a formal region, a functional region, and a vernacular region that would include where you live?

What methods, topics, or procedures would be helpful to include in the study of world geography?

Geography Exercise

Identify the following key places on a map:

Arctic Circle

Antarctic Circle

Equator

International Date Line

North Pole

Prime meridian

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

South Pole

Activities

Use Google Earth to locate your current school or residence.

Draw a map of your home state or province and include lines of latitude and longitude.

Compile the statistical data on your home state, province, or territory to use in comparing formal political regions.

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Geography

raphyEducationSign InMenuDonateARTICLEleveledARTICLEleveledGeographyGeographyGeography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.Grades9 - 12+SubjectsEarth Science, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌‌Loading ...Selected text levelDefaultArticleVocabularyGeography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with the natural environment, and the way that locations and places can have an impact on people. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change over time.Ancient GeographersThe term "geography" was coined by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes in the third century B.C.E. In Greek, geo- means “earth” and -graphy means “to write.” Using geography, Eratosthenes and other Greeks developed an understanding of where their homeland was located in relation to other places, what their own and other places were like, and how people and environments were distributed. These concerns have been central to geography ever since.Of course, the Greeks were not the only people interested in geography, nor were they the first. Throughout human history, most societies have sought to understand something about their place in the world, and the people and environments around them. Mesopotamian societies inscribed maps on clay tablets, some of which survive to this day. The earliest known attempt at mapping the world is a Babylonian clay tablet known as the Imago Mundi. This map, created in the sixth century B.C.E., is more of a metaphorical and spiritual representation of Babylonian society rather than an accurate depiction of geography. Other Mesopotamian maps were more practical, marking irrigation networks and landholdings.Indigenous peoples around the world developed geographic ideas and practices long before Eratosthenes. For example, Polynesian navigators embarked on long-range sea voyages across the Pacific Islands as early as 3000 years ago. The people of the Marshall Islands used navigation charts made of natural materials (“stick charts”) to visualize and memorize currents, wind patterns, and island locations.Indeed, mapmaking probably came even before writing in many places, but ancient Greek geographers were particularly influential. They developed very detailed maps of Greek city-states, including parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. More importantly, they also raised questions about how and why different human and natural patterns came into being on Earth’s surface, and why variations existed from place to place. The effort to answer these questions about patterns and distribution led them to figure out that the world was round, to calculate Earth’s circumference, and to develop explanations of everything from the seasonal flooding of the Nile to differences in population densities from place to place.During the Middle Ages, geography ceased to be a major academic pursuit in Europe. Advances in geography were chiefly made by scientists of the Muslim world, based around the Middle East and North Africa. Geographers of this Islamic Golden Age created an early example of a rectangular map based on a grid, a map system that is still familiar today. Islamic scholars also applied their study of people and places to agriculture, determining which crops and livestock were most suited to specific habitats or environments.In addition to the advances in the Middle East, the Chinese empire in Asia also contributed immensely to geography. Around 1000, Chinese navigators achieved one of the most important developments in the history of geography: They were the first to use the compass for navigational purposes. In the early 1400s, the explorer Zheng He embarked on seven voyages to the lands bordering the China Sea and the Indian Ocean, establishing China’s influence throughout Southeast Asia.Age of DiscoveryThrough the 13th-century travels of the Italian explorer Marco Polo, European interest in spices from Asia grew. Acquiring spices from East Asian and Arab merchants was expensive, and a major land route for the European spice trade was lost with the conquering of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire. These and other economic factors, in addition to competition between Christian and Islamic societies, motivated European nations to send explorers in search of a sea route to China. This period of time between the 15th and 17th centuries is known in the West as the Age of Exploration or the Age of Discovery.With the dawn of the Age of Discovery, the study of geography regained popularity in Europe. The invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s helped spread geographic knowledge by making maps and charts widely available. Improvements in shipbuilding and navigation facilitated more exploring, greatly improving the accuracy of maps and geographic information.Greater geographic understanding allowed European powers to extend their global influence. During the Age of Discovery, European nations established colonies around the world. Improved transportation, communication, and navigational technology allowed countries such as the United Kingdom to establish colonies as far away as the Americas, Asia, Australia, and Africa. This was lucrative for European powers, but the Age of Discovery brought about nightmarish change for the people already living in the territories they colonized. When Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492, millions of Indigenous peoples already lived there. By the 1600s, 90 percent of the Indigenous population of the Americas had been wiped out by violence and diseases brought over by European explorers.Geography was not just a subject that enabled colonialism, however. It also helped people understand the planet on which they lived. Not surprisingly, geography became an important focus of study in schools and universities.Geography also became an important part of other academic disciplines, such as chemistry, economics, and philosophy. In fact, every academic subject has some geographic connection. Chemists study where certain chemical elements, such as gold or silver, can be found. Economists examine which nations trade with other nations, and what resources are exchanged. Philosophers analyze the responsibility people have to take care of Earth.Emergence of Modern GeographySome people have trouble understanding the complete scope of the discipline of geography because geography is interdisciplinary, meaning that it is not defined by one particular topic. Instead, geography is concerned with many different topics—people, culture, politics, settlements, plants, landforms, and much more. Geography asks spatial questions—how and why things are distributed or arranged in particular ways on Earth’s surface. It looks at these different distributions and arrangements at many different scales. It also asks questions about how the interaction of different human and natural activities on Earth’s surface shape the characteristics of the world in which we live.Geography seeks to understand where things are found and why they are present in those places; how things that are located in the same or distant places influence one another over time; and why places and the people who live in them develop and change in particular ways. Raising these questions is at the heart of the “geographic perspective.”Exploration has long been an important part of geography, and it’s an important part of developing a geographic perspective. Exploration isn’t limited to visiting unfamiliar places; it also means documenting and connecting relationships between spatial, sociological, and ecological elements. tThe age-old practice of mapping still plays an important role in this type of exploration, but exploration can also be done by using images from satellites or gathering information from interviews. Discoveries can come by using computers to map and analyze the relationship among things in geographic space, or from piecing together the multiple forces, near and far, that shape the way individual places develop.Applying a geographic perspective demonstrates geography’s concern not just with where things are, but with “the why of where”—a short but useful definition of geography’s central focus.The insights that have come from geographic research show the importance of asking “the why of where” questions. Geographic studies comparing physical characteristics of continents on either side of the Atlantic Ocean, for instance, gave rise to the idea that Earth’s surface is comprised of large, slowly moving plates—plate tectonics.Studies of the geographic distribution of human settlements have shown how economic forces and modes of transport influence the location of towns and cities. For example, geographic analysis has pointed to the role of the United States Interstate Highway System and the rapid growth of car ownership in creating a boom in U.S. suburban growth after World War II. The geographic perspective helped show where Americans were moving, why they were moving there, and how their new living places affected their lives, their relationships with others, and their interactions with the environment.Geographic analyses of the spread of diseases have pointed to the conditions that allow particular diseases to develop and spread. Dr. John Snow’s cholera map stands out as a classic example. When cholera broke out in London, England, in 1854, Snow represented the deaths per household on a street map. Using the map, he was able to trace the source of the outbreak to a water pump on the corner of Broad Street and Cambridge Street. The geographic perspective helped identify the source of the problem (the water from a specific pump) and allowed people to avoid the disease (avoiding water from that pump).Investigations of the geographic impact of human activities have advanced understanding of the role of humans in transforming the surface of Earth, exposing the spatial extent of threats such as water pollution by artificial waste. For example, geographic study has shown that a large mass of tiny pieces of plastic currently floating in the Pacific Ocean is approximately the size of Texas. Satellite images and other geographic technology identified the so-called “Great Pacific Garbage Patch.”These examples of different uses of the geographic perspective help explain why geographic study and research is important as we confront many 21st century challenges, including environmental pollution, poverty, hunger, and ethnic or political conflict.Because the study of geography is so broad, the discipline is typically divided into specialties. At the broadest level, geography is divided into physical geography, human geography, geographic techniques, and regional geography.Physical GeographyThe natural environment is the primary concern of physical geographers, although many physical geographers also look at how humans have altered natural systems. Physical geographers study Earth’s seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Some disciplines within physical geography include geomorphology, glaciology, pedology, hydrology, climatology, biogeography, and oceanography.Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists investigate the nature and impact of wind, ice, rivers, erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes, living things, and other forces that shape and change the surface of Earth.Glaciologists focus on Earth’s ice fields and their impact on the planet’s climate. Glaciologists document the properties and distribution of glaciers and icebergs. Data collected by glaciologists has demonstrated the retreat of Arctic and Antarctic ice in the past century.Pedologists study soil and how it is created, changed, and classified. Soil studies are used by a variety of professions, from farmers analyzing field fertility to engineers investigating the suitability of different areas for building heavy structures.Hydrology is the study of Earth’s water: its properties, distribution, and effects. Hydrologists are especially concerned with the movement of water as it cycles from the ocean to the atmosphere, then back to Earth’s surface. Hydrologists study the water cycle through rainfall into streams, lakes, the soil, and underground aquifers. Hydrologists provide insights that are critical to building or removing dams, designing irrigation systems, monitoring water quality, tracking drought conditions, and predicting flood risk.Climatologists study Earth’s climate system and its impact on Earth’s surface. For example, climatologists make predictions about El Niño, a cyclical weather phenomenon of warm surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. They analyze the dramatic worldwide climate changes caused by El Niño, such as flooding in Peru, drought in Australia, and, in the United States, the oddities of heavy Texas rains or an unseasonably warm Minnesota winter.Biogeographers study the impact of the environment on the distribution of plants and animals. For example, a biogeographer might document all the places in the world inhabited by a certain spider species, and what those places have in common.Oceanography, a related discipline of physical geography, focuses on the creatures and environments of the world’s oceans. Observation of ocean tides and currents constituted some of the first oceanographic investigations. For example, 18th-century mariners figured out the geography of the Gulf Stream, a massive current flowing like a river through the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery and tracking of the Gulf Stream helped communications and travel between Europe and the Americas.Today, oceanographers conduct research on the impacts of water pollution, track tsunamis, design offshore oil rigs, investigate underwater eruptions of lava, and study all types of marine organisms from toxic algae to friendly dolphins.Human GeographyHuman geography is concerned with the distribution and networks of people and cultures on Earth’s surface. A human geographer might investigate the local, regional, and global impact of rising economic powers China and India, which represent 37 percent of the world’s people. They also might look at how consumers in China and India adjust to new technology and markets, and how markets respond to such a huge consumer base.Human geographers also study how people use and alter their environments. When, for example, people allow their animals to overgraze a region, the soil erodes and grassland is transformed into desert. The impact of overgrazing on the landscape as well as agricultural production is an area of study for human geographers.Finally, human geographers study how political, social, and economic systems are organized across geographical space. These include governments, religious organizations, and trade partnerships. The boundaries of these groups constantly change.The main divisions within human geography reflect a concern with different types of human activities or ways of living. Some examples of human geography include urban geography, economic geography, cultural geography, political geography, social geography, and population geography. Human geographers who study geographic patterns and processes in past times are part of the subdiscipline of historical geography. Those who study how people understand maps and geographic space belong to a subdiscipline known as behavioral geography.Many human geographers interested in the relationship between humans and the environment work in the subdisciplines of cultural geography and political geography.Cultural geographers study how the natural environment influences the development of human culture, such as how the climate affects the agricultural practices of a region. Political geographers study the impact of political circumstances on interactions between people and their environment, as well as environmental conflicts, such as disputes over water rights.Some human geographers focus on the connection between human health and geography. For example, health geographers create maps that track the location and spread of specific diseases. They analyze the geographic disparities of health-care access. They are very interested in the impact of the environment on human health, especially the effects of environmental hazards such as radiation, lead poisoning, or water pollution.Geographic TechniquesSpecialists in geographic techniques study the ways in which geographic processes can be analyzed and represented using different methods and technologies. Mapmaking, or cartography, is perhaps the most basic of these. Cartography has been instrumental to geography throughout the ages.Today, almost the entire surface of Earth has been mapped with remarkable accuracy, and much of this information is available instantly on the internet. One of the most remarkable of these websites is Google Earth, which “lets you fly anywhere on Earth to view satellite imagery, maps, terrain, 3D buildings, from galaxies in outer space to the canyons of the ocean.” In essence, anyone can be a virtual explorer from the comfort of home.Technological developments during the past 100 years have given rise to a number of other specialties for scientists studying geographic techniques. The airplane made it possible to photograph land from above. Now, there are many satellites and other above-Earth vehicles that help geographers figure out what the surface of the planet looks like and how it is changing.Geographers looking at what above-Earth cameras and sensors reveal are specialists in remote sensing. Pictures taken from space can be used to make maps, monitor ice melt, assess flood damage, track oil spills, predict weather, or perform endless other functions. For example, by comparing satellite photos taken from 1955 to 2007, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) discovered that the rate of coastal erosion along Alaska’s Beaufort Sea had doubled. Every year from 2002 to 2007, about 13.7 meters (45 feet) per year of coast, mostly icy permafrost, vanished into the sea.Computerized systems that allow for precise calculations of how things are distributed and relate to one another have made the study of geographic information systems (GIS) an increasingly important specialty within geography. Geographic information systems are powerful databases that collect all types of information (maps, reports, statistics, satellite images, surveys, demographic data, and more) and link each piece of data to a geographic reference point, such as geographic coordinates. This data, called geospatial information, can be stored, analyzed, modeled, and manipulated in ways not possible before GIS computer technology existed.The popularity and importance of GIS has given rise to a new science known as geographic information science (GISci). Geographic information scientists study patterns in nature as well as human development. They might study natural hazards, such as a fire that struck Los Angeles, California, United States, in 2008. A map posted on the internet showed the real-time spread of the fire, along with information to help people make decisions about how to evacuate quickly. GIS can also illustrate human struggles from a geographic perspective, such as the interactive online map published by the New York Times in May 2009 that showed building foreclosure rates in various regions around the New York City area.The enormous possibilities for producing computerized maps and diagrams that can help us understand environmental and social problems have made geographic visualization an increasingly important specialty within geography. This geospatial information is in high demand by just about every institution, from government agencies monitoring water quality to entrepreneurs deciding where to locate new businesses.Regional GeographyRegional geographers take a somewhat different approach to specialization, directing their attention to the general geographic characteristics of a region. A regional geographer might specialize in African studies, observing and documenting the people, nations, rivers, mountains, deserts, weather, trade, and other attributes of the continent. There are different ways you can define a region. You can look at climate zones, cultural regions, or political regions. Often regional geographers have a physical or human geography specialty as well as a regional specialty.Regional geographers may also study smaller regions, such as urban areas. A regional geographer may be interested in the way a city like Shanghai, China, is growing. They would study transportation, migration, housing, and language use, as well as the human impact on elements of the natural environment, such as the Huangpu River.Whether geography is thought of as a discipline or as a basic feature of our world, developing an understanding of the subject is important. Some grasp of geography is essential as people seek to make sense of the world and understand their place in it. Thinking geographically helps people to be aware of the connections among and between places and to see how important events are shaped by where they take place. Finally, knowing something about geography enriches people’s lives—promoting curiosity about other people and places and an appreciation of the patterns, environments, and peoples that make up the endlessly fascinating, varied planet on which we live.Fast FactGazetteerA gazetteer is a geographic dictionary. Gazetteers, which have existed for thousands of years, usually contain some sort of map and a set of information. Some gazetteers may contain a list of capital cities or areas where a specific resource is found. Other gazetteers may contain information about the local population, such as languages spoken, money used, or religious beliefs.Fast FactOld MapsPeople have been making maps for thousands of years. One of the oldest known maps was found near the city of Kirkuk, Iraq. Most geographers say it dates from 2500 B.C.E. It is a palm-sized block of clay depicting an area with two hills and a stream. (Some geographers think the stream is a canal made by people for irrigation.) Geographers have identified one of the towns on the map. However, they are not sure exactly what the hand-held map represents.Ancient maps could also be quite large. A nine-foot wall painting in Catal Hyuk, Turkey, was made about 6000 B.C.E. It is a map of a busy city, complete with crowded housing and even an erupting volcano. However, some scientists believe this "map" is decorative and not an accurate representation of what was there.Fast FactWrong-Way CorriganThe American aviator Douglas Corrigan is often nicknamed "Wrong-Way Corrigan" because of a navigational error he made on a flight in 1938. Corrigan had just piloted a very impressive flight from the U.S. cities of Long Beach, California, to New York, New York. He was scheduled to fly back to Long Beach. Instead, with the sky covered in clouds, Wrong Way Corrigan flew to Dublin, Ireland.United States Geological Survey: GeographyCreditsMedia CreditsThe audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.Principal AuthorAlexander Murphy, Professor of Geography and Rippey Chair in Liberal Arts and Sciences, Department of Geography, University of OregonWritersDiane BoudreauAudrey CarangeloHilary CostaJoe JaszewskiMelissa McDanielTara RamroopErin SproutSantani TengAndrew TurgeonIllustratorsMary Crooks, National Geographic SocietyTim Gunther, IllustratorDinara SagatovaEditorsJeannie Evers, Emdash Editing, Emdash EditingJeff HuntKim RutledgeKara WestEducator ReviewerNancy WynneExpert ReviewersDaniel Edelson, Vice President, National Geographic EducationLindsey Mohan, Ph.D.Sarah Wilson, National Geographic SocietyProducerNational Geographic SocietyotherLast UpdatedOctober 19, 2023User PermissionsFor information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.MediaIf a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.TextText on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.InteractivesAny interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.Related ResourcesNational Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036ABOUTNational Geographic SocietyNatGeo.comNews and ImpactContact UsExploreOur ExplorersOur ProgramsEducationNat Geo LiveStorytellers CollectiveTraveling ExhibitionsJoin UsWays to GiveApply for a GrantCareersdonateget updatesConnectNational Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. © 1996 - 2024 National Geographic Society. 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What Is Geography? - WorldAtlas

What Is Geography?

Such an intriguing planet deserves a field as colorful and varied as Geography in order to describe its many levels.

A captivating subject, geography is a scientific field that is devoted to the study of the Earth’s landforms, oceans, environment and ecosystems, as well as the interactions between the human society and their environment. The word geography literally means “earth writing”. Geography has been elucidated by various sources time and again. Here is a general definition of geography:

“Geography is the study of the Earth’s physical features and environment including the impact of human activity on these factors and vice versa. The subject also encompasses the study of patterns of human population distribution, land use, resource availability, and industries.”

Scholars who study geography are known as geographers. These people engage themselves in the exciting task of exploring and studying the Earth’s natural environment and human society. Although map-makers were known as geographers in the ancient world, today, they are more specifically known as cartographers. Geographers usually focus on two major fields of geographical studies: physical geography or human geography.

History of Geography

The term geography was coined by the ancient Greeks who not only created detailed maps and accounts of places around them but also illuminated why and how human and natural patterns varied from one place to another on Earth. Through the passage of time, the rich legacy of geography made a momentous journey to the bright Islamic minds. The Islamic Golden Age witnessed astounding advancements in the geographical sciences. Islamic geographers were credited with groundbreaking discoveries. New lands were explored and the world’s first grid-based mapping system was developed. The Chinese civilization also contributed instrumentally towards the development of early geography. The compass, a traveling aid, devised by the Chinese, was used by the Chinese explorers to explore the unknown.

A new historical chapter of geography opened during the “Age of Discovery”, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography was regenerated in the European world. Marco Polo, the Venetian merchant traveler, spearheaded this new Age of Exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia like China and India became the primary reason for traveling during this period. Europeans moved ahead in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures, and natural wonders in the process. They also began to colonize new lands towards the latter half of the Age of Exploration. The tremendous potential of geography to shape the future of human civilization was recognized and in the 18th Century, geography was introduced as a discipline of study at the university level. Based on geographical knowledge, the human society discovered new ways and means to overcome the challenges posed by nature and human civilizations flourished in all parts of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software radically changed the definition of geography and made the study of geography more comprehensive and detailed.

The Branches of Geography

Geography can be regarded as an interdisciplinary science. The subject encompasses an interdisciplinary perspective that allows the observation and analysis of anything distributed in Earth space and the development of solutions to problems based on such analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several branches of study. The primary classification of geography divides the approach to the subject into the two broad categories of physical geography and human geography.

Physical Geography

Physical geography is defined as the branch of geography that encompasses the study of the natural features and phenomena (or processes) on the Earth. Physical geography may be further subdivided into various branches:

Geomorphology: This involves the study of the topographic and bathymetric features on Earth. The science helps to elucidate various aspects related to the landforms on the Earth such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict the future changes in the Earth’s physical features.

Glaciology: This field of physical geography deals with the study of the inter-dynamics of glaciers and their effects on the planet’s environment. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere including the alpine glaciers and the continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc., are some of the sub-fields of glaciological studies.

Oceanography: Since oceans hold 96.5% of the Earth’s waters, a special field of oceanography needs to be dedicated to the study of oceans. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, its mountains, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (study of the marine life and ocean ecosystems), chemical oceanography (study of the chemical composition of the marine waters and their effects on marine life forms), physical oceanography (study of the oceanic movements like the waves, currents, etc.)

Hydrology: This is another vital aspect of physical geography. Hydrology deals with the study of the properties of the Earth’s water resources and the movement dynamics of water in relation to land. The field encompasses the study of the rivers, lakes, glaciers, and underground aquifers on the planet. It studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another on, above, and below the Earth’s surface, in the form of the hydrological cycle.

Pedology: A branch of soil science, pedology involves the study of the different soil types in their natural environment on the surface of the Earth. This field of study helps gather information and knowledge on the process of soil formation (pedogenesis), soil constitution, soil texture, classification, etc.

Biogeography: An indispensable field of physical geography, biogeography is the study of how species on Earth are dispersed in geographic space. It also deals with the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographical area has its own unique ecosystem and biogeography explores and explains such ecosystems in relation to physical geographical features. Different branches of biogeography exist like zoogeography (geographic distribution of animals), phytogeography (geographic distribution of plants), insular biogeography (the study of factors influencing isolated ecosystems), etc.

Paleogeography: This branch of physical geography examines the geographical features at various time points in the Earth’s geological history. It helps the geographers to attain knowledge about the continental positions and plate tectonics determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.

Climatology: The scientific study of climate, climatology is a crucial field of geographical studies in today’s world. It examines all aspects related to the micro or local climates of places and also the macro or global climate. It also involves an examination of the impact of human society on climate and vice versa.

Meteorology: This field of physical geography is concerned with the study of the weather patterns of a place and the atmospheric processes and phenomena that influence the weather.

Environmental geography: Also known as integrative geography, this field of physical geography explores the interactions between humans (individuals or society) and their natural environment from the spatial point of view. Environmental geography is thus the bridging gap between human geography and physical geography and can be treated as an amalgamation of multiple fields of physical geography and human geography.

Coastal geography: Coastal geography is another area of specialization of physical geography that also involves a study of human geography. It deals with the study of the dynamic interface between the coastal land and the sea. The physical processes that shape the coastal landscape and the influence of the sea in triggering landscape modifications is incorporated in the study of coastal geography. The study also involves an understanding of the ways the human inhabitants of coastal areas influence the coastal landforms and ecosystems.

Quaternary science: This is a highly specialized field of physical geography that deals with the study of the Quaternary period on Earth (the Earth’s geographical history encompassing the last 2.6 million years). It allows the geographers to learn about the environmental changes undergone in the planet’s recent past. This knowledge is then used as a tool to predict future changes in the Earth’s environment.

Geomatics: Geomatics is a technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection of data related to the earth’s surface, analysis of the data, its interpretation, and storage. Geodesy, remote sensing, and geographical information science are the three sub-divisions of geomatics.

Landscape ecology: The science of landscape ecology deals with the study of how the varying landscapes on Earth influences the ecological processes and ecosystems on the planet. The German geographer Carl Troll is credited as the founder of this field of physical geography.

Human Geography

Human geography is the branch of geography that deals with the study of how the human society is influenced by the Earth’s surface and environment and how, in turn, anthropological activities impact the planet. Human geography is centered on the study of the planet’s most evolved creatures: the humans and their environment. This branch of geography can be further subdivided into various disciplines based on the focus of study:

Population geography: A division of human geography, population geography deals with the study of how the nature of a place determines the distribution, growth, composition, and migration of human populations.Historical geography: Historical geography elucidates the ways in which geographical phenomena change and evolve with time. Though it is treated as a sub-field of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography attempts to understand why, how and when a place or region on Earth changes and the impact such changes have on the human society.Cultural geography: Cultural geography explores how and why cultural products and norms vary with space and place. It thus deals with the study of the spatial variations of human cultures including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, etc. Religion geography, language geography, etc., are some of the subfields of cultural geography.Economic geography: A vital aspect of human geography, economic geography encompasses the study of how human economic activities are located, distributed and organized in geographical place and space. Marketing and transportation geography can be treated as sub-fields of economic geography.Political geography: This important field of human geography deals with the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division of land and its resources between the countries. It also deals with how spatial structures influence political functions and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the subfields of political geography.Health geography: A sub-discipline of human geography, health geography concentrates on the influence of the geographical location and place on the health and well-being of humans. It tends to approach the subject of human health from a comprehensive perspective encompassing the influence of society and space on health and disease.Developmental geography: This branch of human geography explores the quality of life and the standard of living of the human inhabitants of the world and attempts to understand how and why such standards vary with place and space.Settlement geography: Settlement geography attempts to explore the part of the Earth’s surface that encompasses human settlements. It is a study of the urban and rural settlements, the economic structure, infrastructure, etc., and the dynamics of human settlement patterns in relation to space and time.Animal geography: Animal geography might be considered as a sub-field of human geography which is closely related to the environmental geography branch of physical geography. It encompasses the study of the lifeworlds of the animals on Earth and the interdependencies between humans and other animals.

Oishimaya Sen Nag August 4 2017 in Environment

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世界地理（地理学分支）_百度百科

（地理学分支）_百度百科网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心世界地理是一个多义词，请在下列义项上选择浏览（共3个义项）展开添加义项世界地理播报讨论上传视频地理学分支收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10世界地理（World Geography）隶属于区域地理学，是人们科学地认识世界的一个重要方面。从自然地理、人文地理或两者相结合的角度，运用地理学一般的分析综合、归纳概括、区域对比等方法，展示大洲、大洋、国家（地区）的概貌及其内部差异，并阐明世界主要城市和各种自然地理和人文地理事物的特点。中文名世界地理外文名World Geography研究对象海陆分布，海洋，地表，气候，种族和民族所属分类区域地理学目录1海陆分布特点2多变的地表▪陆地地形▪海底地形3海洋水域▪简介▪太平洋▪大西洋▪印度洋▪北冰洋▪南冰洋4世界气候分类▪低纬度气候▪中纬度气候▪高纬度气候▪高原山地气候5种族和民族▪种族▪民族海陆分布特点播报编辑首先，陆地主要集中在北半球,约占北半球总面积的2/5；而在南半球陆地面积只占1/5。在北半球的中、高纬度，陆地分布几乎连续不断，最为宽广；南半球的陆地在中、高纬度显著收缩，南纬56°～65°之间，除一些岛屿外，几乎全部为广阔的海洋。但是，北半球的极地是一片海洋──北冰洋，南半球的极地却是一块大陆──南极大陆。其次，各大陆的形状都是北宽南窄，略呈倒三角形。除南极大陆外，所有大陆还南北成对分布：北美与南美、欧洲与非洲、亚洲和澳大利亚。每对大陆之间，形成范围广大的陆间海，岛屿星罗棋布。另外,亚欧大陆东部边缘环列着一连串花彩列岛,形成向东突出的岛弧，其外侧则是一系列深邃的海沟。大西洋两岸的轮廓互为对应，这一大陆的凸出部分能与另一大陆的凹进部分嵌合。多变的地表播报编辑世界地理地球自诞生以来，风云变幻，历经沧桑，处于永恒的运动和变化之中。按照板块构造理论，地球表层岩石圈被裂解为若干巨大的板块。刚性的岩石圈板块驮伏在塑性软流圈之上，在地球表层作大规模水平运动。板块与板块之间，在地幔对流的驱动下，或相背分离，或相向聚合，或相互平移，从而发生板块的扩张、俯冲、碰撞或错动。板块运动及其相互作用，带动了大陆漂移和大洋的启闭，导致了造山运动、火山、地震等种种地质构造作用。板块构造学家认为，在早古时代，地球上存在统一的南方大陆和离散的北方大陆。到古生代末，北方大陆（劳亚古陆）与南方大陆（冈瓦纳古陆）联为一体，叫做泛大陆。此时全球是由一个大陆和一个大洋组成。从中生代至新生代，新大洋先后开启，大陆则在漂移中由合而分。其中冈瓦纳古陆发生多次分裂解体，多数裂解的块体向北漂移，相继归并于劳亚古陆，后者扩展增生；在劳亚古陆内部，北大西洋开始启开，北美大陆与欧洲乃沿此裂开、分离。全球便逐步演变为今天各个大陆和各个大洋的分布格局，但这不过是地球发展历史中的一幕。陆地地形地球表面高低起伏悬殊，形态变化多端。喜马拉雅山脉的珠穆朗玛峰的现测高度为海拔8848.86米 [1],这是陆地上的最高点;而西亚约旦河的尾闾死海的水面为负392米，是陆地上的最低点,高低差距9240.13米。陆地地形通常分为山地、平原、高原、盆地、丘陵等类型，它们以不同的规模在各大陆上交相分布，构成陆地表面起伏不平的外貌。山地所占面积并不大。陆地上有两大高山带，一是环太平洋带，沿太平洋两岸作南北向分布；另一是横贯亚欧大陆中南部及非洲大陆北缘，略呈东西向分布。两大高山带是中生代以来近期地壳运动的产物，陆地上最高峻、宏伟的年轻山脉几乎都集中于此，这里也是火山和地震活动最强烈的地带。中生代以前形成的山脉，如北美洲东部、欧洲中部和西北部、中亚、澳大利亚东部等，由于年代已久，历经风化剥蚀，与上述高山带相比，山势大为逊色。陆地上平原面积最广，约1/4的地面海拔不足200米。多属大河冲积平原，常见于大陆中部和沿海地带，往往傍以山地或高原，这在北美和南美大陆最为显著。大片隆起的高原一般以前寒武纪古陆为核心，地壳相对较稳定，起伏不大。如非洲大陆的高原，亚洲中西伯利亚、蒙古高原和南部三大半岛上的高原，澳大利亚西部高原，以及被巨厚冰层覆盖的南极大陆高原，等等。另一些高原处于前述年轻山脉之间，地壳活动比较强烈，海拔较高，地面起伏也很大，如亚洲的青藏高原、伊朗高原，美洲西部山系中多数山间高原等。海底地形以海平面为基准，陆地的平均高度是875米,而海洋的平均深度达3800米。海底地形大致可分为大陆边缘、大洋中脊和洋底盆地三大单元。大陆边缘处于大陆和洋底盆地之间广阔的过渡地带，约占大洋总面积的22%。大西洋、印度洋和北冰洋周缘称大西洋型大陆边缘，通常由大陆架、大陆坡和大陆麓三部分组成。大陆架是陆地向海洋延伸的浅水地域，地势微缓倾斜，最宽者可达1000多公里；大陆架向洋侧进入大陆坡地带，坡度显著增加，水深也急剧加大，宽约数十至数百公里，地形崎岖，常被海底峡谷所切割；大陆坡坡脚之下为大陆麓，这是由沉积物堆积而成的坦坡，宽达数百至上千公里，平缓地过渡到洋底盆地。太平洋周缘称太平洋型大陆边缘,大陆架狭窄,大陆坡很陡，缺失大陆麓，而代之以海沟。这里是板块的潜没(俯冲)带，洋底最深的地方,地壳活动特别强烈。在太平洋西缘,海沟与岛弧相伴；在太平洋东缘，海沟直接毗邻大陆地块，与陆上年轻的褶皱山脉构成地球表面最大的地形高差。大洋中脊在太平洋、大西洋、印度洋和北冰洋内连续延伸,相对高度2000～3000米,总长度约80000公里,巍然耸立在洋底之上，堪称地球表面最长的山系。在大西洋，它的位置居中，走向与两岸轮廓一致，“中脊”之名即由此而来。大洋中脊是软流圈地幔物质上涌、板块增生之处，火山活动较强烈，部分火山山峰露出海面成为岛屿。洋底盆地介于大陆边缘与大洋中脊之间，水深一般在4000～5000米。这里分布有纵横的海岭，林立的海峰，孤立突兀的海丘，平缓隆起的海底高原，它们将洋底盆地分割成若干个海盆。海盆底部发育深海平原，坡度微缓，是地球表面最平坦的部分。海洋水域播报编辑简介作为地理环境主要组成部分的广大海洋水域，表面均质，以地带性分异为主，按纬度而异的太阳光热分布，成为划分海洋自然带的基础。但由于水体的水平运动和垂直运动，使海洋自然带较陆地自然带简单，各带之间的界限也较不明确。全球海洋大致可划分出 7个自然带：北极带、北温带、北热带、赤道带、南热带、南温带和南极带，各带之间的差异性主要表现在表水温度、含盐度、海洋生物分布等方面。海洋自然带也受到洋流等非地带性因素局部的干扰和破坏，特别是在同一纬度地带寒、暖流所经部分。受陆地分隔的四个大洋，跨越不同的纬度位置，具有不同的轮廓，在自然地理方面各具特点，体现着全球地理环境的差异性。太平洋太平洋是世界第一大洋，约占地球表面的35%，大洋总面积的1/2。海底地形复杂多样,最突出的是西部边缘海盆－岛弧－海沟带和东部与大陆年轻褶皱山脉邻接的海沟带，地壳不稳定，形成世界著名的环太平洋火山、地震带；另一个特点是大洋中脊偏于太平洋东侧，其中北段已潜入北美大陆之下。岛屿众多，约占世界岛屿总面积的45%，居各大洋之首，主要集中在中、西部水域。太平洋是世界上最深的海洋，平均深度4028米；集中了世界上大部分海沟,深度超过10000米的海沟全部在太平洋,其中马里亚纳海沟深达11034米(一说11022米),为已知世界海洋的最深点。太平洋北至北极圈附近，南达南极洲，跨越多个气候带，但其水平轮廓略呈扁圆形，东西宽度超过南北长度，最宽处是在赤道附近，热带与亚热带范围最广，再加上北部为陆地环抱，仅以狭窄的白令海峡同北冰洋沟通，所以太平洋又是世界上最温暖的海洋，表水平均温度高于其他大洋。与大西洋相似，太平洋在赤道至南、北纬40°左右的范围内，各形成一个完整的环流系统，其中南太平洋环流系统中贴近南美大陆西岸北流的秘鲁寒流，是世界上最强盛的一股寒流。由于面积广、岛屿多，环境多样，太平洋拥有的生物量占世界大洋的50%以上。大西洋大西洋是世界第二大洋。水平轮廓略呈“S”形，东西窄，南北长。北部与北冰洋畅通，南达南极洲，分跨南、北半球寒、温、热三带，地球上各大风带在大西洋上表现最为完整，形成南、北对称的气候带和两大环流系统。墨西哥湾暖流及其延续的北大西洋暖流，是世界上最强盛的一股暖流，它对北大西洋本身及其相邻大陆的气候有巨大影响。海底地形最显著的特点是大洋中脊(大西洋海岭)纵贯中部,走向与海岸平行,也作“S”状,其宽度约占大西洋宽度的1/3;其次是大陆架宽广,所占面积的比率超过太平洋和印度洋。印度洋印度洋是世界第三大洋。其水平轮廓的特点是北部被亚、澳、非大陆封闭，南部开敞。主体部分在热带、亚热带范围内，有“热带性海洋”之称。在北纬30°至南纬40°的辽阔海域内，表水温度高于太平洋和大西洋同纬度流域；处于干热沙漠之间的印度洋边缘海──红海，则是世界上含盐度最高的海域。受亚洲大陆南部热带季风环流的影响，北印度洋表层海水的流向也随季节变更,形成独特的“季风洋流”,显著不同于在盛行西风和信风影响下的南印度洋环流系统。大洋中脊呈“入”字形展布，由印度－阿拉伯海岭、中印度洋海岭、西印度洋海岭和南极－印度洋海岭组合而成，脉岭崎岖错杂，中轴裂谷纷繁，与大西洋海岭有着明显差异。大陆架狭窄，但广泛分布大陆麓，以及巨大的水下冲积锥。此外，印度洋岛屿最少也是其有别于其他大洋的重要特点。北冰洋北冰洋是世界最小的海洋，不及太平洋面积的1/4；位于北极圈内，被亚、欧、北美三大洲包围。岸线曲折，岛屿众多，若包括世界第一大岛格陵兰岛在内，岛屿总面积约达400万平方公里，仅次于太平洋。气候严寒,约2/3洋面被冰覆盖，其余也多有浮冰漂流。大陆架宽广，其面积约占北冰洋总面积的36%，这个比率远远超过其他大洋。近乎平行的罗蒙诺索夫海岭和门捷列夫海岭，横断整个北冰洋，构成海底最突出的地貌。大洋中脊宽度较窄，发育不成熟，居于罗蒙诺索夫海岭左侧。海底地形的特点，使北冰洋成为世界最浅的海洋，平均深度为1225米。严酷的自然环境，则使海洋生物种类和数量都远比其他大洋少。南冰洋南冰洋也叫南大洋或南极海，是世界第五个被确定的大洋，是世界上完全环绕地球却未被大陆分割的大洋。南冰洋是围绕南极洲的海洋，是南纬50°以南的印度洋、大西洋和南纬55°-62°间的太平洋的海域。以前一直认为太平洋、大西洋和印度洋一直延伸到南极洲，南冰洋的水域被视为南极海，但因为海洋学上发现南冰洋有重要的不同洋流，于是国际水文地理组织于2000年确定其为一个独立的大洋，成为五大洋中的第四大洋。但在学术界依旧有人认为依据大洋应有其对应的中洋脊而不承认南冰洋这一称谓。据美国《纽约邮报》9日报道，美国国家地理学会8日庆祝“世界海洋日”的到来，同时它宣布，南极洲周围海域将被称为南大洋，也就是世界第五大洋。 [2]世界气候分类播报编辑低纬度气候低纬度的气候主要受赤道气团和热带气团所控制。影响气候的主要环流系统有赤道辐合带、瓦克环流、信风、赤道西风、热带气旋和副热带高压。全年地气系统的辐射差额是入超的，因此气温全年皆高，最冷月平均气温在15～18℃以上，全年水分可能蒸散量在130cm以上。本带可分为5个气候型，其中热带干旱与半干旱气候型又可划分为3个亚型。1．赤道多雨气候分布于赤道及其南、北5°～10°以内，宽窄不一，主要分布在非洲扎伊尔河流域、南美亚马孙河流域和亚洲与大洋洲间的从苏门答腊岛到伊里安岛一带。这里全年正午太阳高度都很大，因此长夏无冬，各月平均气温在25du3-28℃，年平均气温在26℃左右。气温年较差一般小于3℃，日较差可达6～12℃。由于全年皆在赤道气团控制下，风力微弱，以辐合上升气流为主，多雷阵雨，因此全年多雨，无干季，年降水量在2000mm以上，最少月在60mm以上。但降水量的年际变化很大，这与赤道辐合带位置的变动有关。2．热带海洋性气候分布在南北纬10°～25°信风带大陆东岸及热带海洋中的若干岛屿上。这里正当迎风海岸，全年盛行热带海洋气团，气候具有海洋性，最热月平均气温在28℃左右，最冷月平均气温在18～25℃之间，气温年较差、日较差皆小。由于东风（信风）带来湿热的海洋气团，所以除对流雨、热带气旋雨外，还多地形雨，降水量充沛。年降水量在1000mm以上，一般以5～10月较集中，无明显变化。3．热带干湿季气候大致分布在南北半球5°～25°之间。这里当正午太阳高度较小时，位于信风带下，受热带大陆气团控制，盛行下沉气流，是为干季。当正午太阳高度较大时，赤道辐合带移来，有潮湿的辐合上升气流，是为雨季。一年中至少有1～2个月为干季。湿季中蒸散量小于降水量。全年降水量在750～1600mm左右，降水变率很大。全年高温，最冷月平均气温在16～18℃以上，干季之末，雨季之前，气温最高，是为热季。4．热带季风气候分布在纬度10°到回归线附近的亚洲大陆东南部，如我国台湾南部、雷州半岛和海南岛，中南半岛，印度半岛大部，菲律宾，澳大利亚北部沿海等地。这里热带季风发达，一年中风向的季节变化明显。在热带大陆气团控制时，降水稀少。而当赤道气团控制时，降水丰沛，又有大量的热带气旋雨，年降水量多，一般在1500～2000mm，集中在 6～10月（北半球）。全年高温，年平均气温在20℃以上，年较差在3～10℃左右，春秋极短。5．热带干旱与半干旱气候分布在副热带及信风带的大陆中心和大陆西岸。在南、北半球各约以回归线为中心向南北伸展，平均位置大致在纬度15°～25°间。因干旱程度和气候特征不同，可分为热带干旱气候（5a）、热带（西岸）多雾干旱气候（5b）和热带半干旱气候（5c）三个亚型。5a，5c是热带大陆气团的源地，气温年较差、日较差都大，有极端最高气温。5a终年受副热带高压下沉气流控制，因此降水量极少。5c位于5a的外缘，大半年时间受副热带高压控制而干燥少雨，在太阳高度大的季节，赤道低压槽移来，有对流雨，因此出现一短暂的雨季。5b位于热带大陆西岸，有冷洋流经过，终年受海洋副热带高压下沉气流影响，多雾而少雨，降水量极小，但气温较凉，气温年较差、日较差皆小。中纬度气候这里是热带气团和极地气团相互角逐的地带。影响气候的主要环流系统有极锋、盛行西风、温带气旋和反气旋、副热带高压和热带气旋等。该地带一年中辐射能收支差额的变化比较大，因此四季分明，最冷月的平均气温在15～18℃以下，有4～12个月平均气温在10℃以上。全年可能蒸散量在130～52.5cm之间。天气的非周期性变化和降水的季节变化都很显著。再加上北半球中纬度地带大陆面积较大，受海陆的热力对比和高耸庞大地形的影响，使得本带气候更加错综复杂。本带共分8个气候型。6．副热带干旱与半干旱气候分布在热带干旱气候向高纬度的一侧，约在南北纬25°～35°的大陆西岸和内陆地区。它是在副热带高压下沉气流和信风带背岸风的作用下形成的。因干旱程度不同可分为干旱6a与半干旱6b两亚型。6a副热带干旱气候具有少云、少雨、日照强和夏季气温特高等特征。但凉季气温比5a型低，气温年较差较5a型大，达20℃以上。凉季有少量气旋雨，土壤蓄水量略大于5a型。6b副热带半干旱气候位于6a区外缘。夏季气温比6a型低，冬季降水量比6a型稍多。7．副热带季风气候分布于副热带亚欧大陆东岸，约以30°N为中心，向南北各伸展5°左右。这里是热带海洋气团与极地大陆气团交绥角逐的地带，夏秋季节又受热带气旋活动的影响，因此夏热湿、冬温干，最热月平均气温在22℃以上，最冷月平均气温在0～15℃左右，气温年较差约在15～25℃左右。降水量在750～1000mm以上。夏雨较集中，无明显干季。四季分明，无霜期长。8．副热带湿润气候分布于南北美洲、非洲和澳大利亚大陆副热带东岸，约为南北纬20°～35°。冬季受极地大陆气团影响，夏季受海洋高压西缘流来的潮湿海洋气团的控制。由于所处大陆面积小，未形成季风气候。冬夏温差比季风区小，降水的季节分配比季风区均匀。9．副热带夏干气候（地中海气候）分布于副热带大陆西岸30°～40°之间的地带。这里受副热带高压季节移动的影响，在夏季正位于副高中心范围之内或在其东缘，气流是下沉的，因此干燥少雨，日照强烈。冬季副高移向较低纬度，这里受西风带控制，锋面、气旋活动频繁，带来大量降水。全年降水量在300～1000mm左右。冬季气温比较暖和，最冷月平均气温在4～10℃左右。因夏温不同，分为两个亚型。9a凉夏型，贴近冷洋流海岸，夏季凉爽多雾，少雨，最热月平均气温在22℃以下，最冷月平均气温在10℃以上。9b暖夏型，离海岸较远，夏季干热，最热月平均气温在22℃以上，冬季温和湿润，气温年较差稍大。10．温带海洋性气候分布在温带大陆西岸约40°～60°的地带。这里终年盛行西风，受温带海洋气团控制，沿岸有暖洋流经过。冬暖夏凉，最冷月平均气温在0℃以上，最热月平均气温在22℃以下，气温年较差小，约在6～14℃左右。全年湿润有雨，冬季较多。年降水量750～1000mm左右，迎风山地可达2000mm以上。11．温带季风气候分布在亚欧大陆东岸约35°～55°的地带。这里冬季盛行偏北风，寒冷干燥，最冷月平均气温在0℃以下，南北气温差别大。夏季盛行东南风，温暖湿润，最热月平均气温在20℃以上，南北温差小。气温年较差比较大，全年降水量集中于夏季，降水分布由南向北，由沿海向内陆减少。天气的非周期性变化显著，冬季寒潮爆发时，气温在24小时内可下降10℃甚至20℃以上。12．温带大陆性湿润气候分布在亚欧大陆温带海洋性气候区的东侧，北美100°W以东的温带的地区。冬季受极地大陆气团控制而寒冷，有少量气旋性降水。夏季受热带海洋气团的侵入，降水量较多，但不像季风区那样高度集中。这里季节鲜明，天气变化剧烈。13．温带干旱与半干旱气候分布在35°～50°N的亚洲和北美洲大陆中心部分。由于距离海洋较远或受山地屏障，受不到海洋气团的影响，终年都在大陆气团的控制下，因此气候干燥，夏热冬寒，气温年较差很大。因干旱程度不同可分为温带干旱气候（13a）和温带半干旱气候（13b）两个亚型。高纬度气候14．副极地大陆性气侯分布在50°N或55°N到65°N的地区。这里年可能蒸散量在35cm到52.5cm之间。冬季长，一年中至少有9个月为冬季。冬季黑夜时间长，正午太阳高度小，在欧亚大陆中部和偏东地区又为冷高压中心，风小、云少，地面辐射冷却剧烈，大陆性最强，冬温极低。夏季白昼时间长，7月平均气温在15℃以上，气温年较差特大。全年降水量甚少，集中于暖季降落，冬雪较少，但蒸发弱，融化慢，每年有5～7个月的积雪覆盖，积雪厚度在600～700mm左右，土壤冻结现象严重。由于暖季温度适中，又有一定降水量，适宜针叶林生长。15．极地苔原气候分布在北美洲和欧亚大陆的北部边缘、格陵兰沿海的一部分和北冰洋中的若干岛屿中。在南半球则分布在马尔维纳斯群岛（福克兰群岛）、南设得兰群岛和南奥克尼群岛等地。年可能蒸散量小于35cm。全年皆冬，一年中只有1～4个月月平均气温在0℃～10℃左右。其纬度位置已接近或位于极圈以内，所以极昼、极夜现象已很明显。在极夜期间气温很低，但邻近海洋比副极地大陆性气候稍高。最冷月平均气温在-20℃～40℃之间。最热月平均气温在1～5℃左右。在7，8月份，夜间气温仍可降到0℃以下。在冰洋锋上有一定降水，一般年降水量在200～300mm左右。在内陆地区尚不足200 mm，大都为干雪，暖季为雨或湿雪。由于风速大，常形成雪雾，能见度不佳，地面积雪面积不大。自然植被只有苔藓、地衣及小灌木等，构成了苔原景观。16．极地冰原气候分布在格陵兰、南极大陆和北冰洋的若干岛屿上。这里是冰洋气团和南极气团的源地，全年严寒，各月平均气温皆在0℃以下，具有全球的最低年平均气温。一年中有长时期的极昼、极夜现象。全年降水量小于250 mm，皆为干雪，不会融化，长期累积形成很厚的冰原。长年大风，寒风夹雪，能见度恶劣。高原山地气候在高地地带随着高度的增加，气候诸要素也随着发生变化，导致高山气候具有明显的垂直地带性。为了区分因高度影响和因纬度等因素影响的气候，也因为高山气候仅限于局部范围，所以高地气候单列为一大类而没有包括在低地分类系统内。种族和民族播报编辑种族世界上的人口分属于三大种族，即蒙古利亚人种、尼格罗人种和欧罗巴人种。蒙古利亚人种又称黄种人或亚美人种，主要分布在东亚、东南亚、西伯利亚和中亚；美洲的印第安人和北极地区的因纽特人（爱斯基摩人）也属黄种人。尼格罗人种也称黑种人，主要分布在非洲中南部，美洲的黑人是奴隶贸易时期从非洲贩运去的黑奴的后裔；居住在澳大利亚、太平洋岛屿和亚洲东南部边缘地带的黑人，也称棕色人种或马来－波利尼西亚人种。欧罗巴人种也称白种人或高加索人种，主要分布在欧洲、北非、西亚和南亚，白种人移民的后裔也成为美洲、澳大利亚、新西兰等地区人口的主要组成部分。此外，各大种族之间的交流融合，形成许多混血种人。亚洲中西部和非洲东北部是三大种族的接合部，从古代起就产生一系列过渡性人种类型；在近代，接受大批移民的美洲和大洋洲，人种混杂也很明显，其中拉丁美洲的混血种人约占总人口一半以上。民族不同地区的人种由于历史发展、经济生活、语言文字和风俗习惯的差异，又形成许多不同的民族。世界上约有2000多个民族，其中人口超过2500万的大民族有29个，合计约占世界总人口的2/3；人口不足10万的少数民族有1400多个,在世界总人口中的比重不到0.1%。有些国家是单一民族（如蒙古、朝鲜等）或两大民族并列（如塞浦路斯、捷克斯洛伐克等），大多数国家是多民族（如中国、苏联等），也有同一民族分布在许多国家（如阿拉伯民族）。新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 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